Detective L - Bio Stuff (and Psych stuff)

[Detective L]

Red (Rust)

Spoiler

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Basic Information​

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Name: Red
Nickname: N/A
Gender: Female
Age: Unknown
Clan: N/A

Looks: Red is a young female, with deep red hair and bright blue eyes. She normally wears a gold dress with a large feathered collar, and gold high-heels. After she acquires her weapon and begins to fight, she makes her outfit more suitable for movement and combat, removing her outer dress, breaking the heels off of her high heeled shoes and donning a dark black overcoat with a yellow triangle symbol on the back. Her outfit contains multiple equilateral triangles, specifically on the chest area of the dress and on her ring.

Personality: Red is a quiet girl, a former singer who almost lost her voice after an attack. She keeps to herself, and spends most of her time either doing missions, or conversing with her odd sword. Red is stern and serious, and barely smiles. When she does speak, it is only for important matters.

Village Information​

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Village of Birth: Land of Lightning

WSE Clan: N/A

Rank & Chakra Information​

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Ninja Rank: S-Jounin
Specialty: N/A
Elements:
Storm
Lightning
Water
Earth
Your ninjutsu: Ninjutsu
Genjutsu
Kenjutsu

Background Information​

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History: Not much is known about Red's past life. She was born in an area around the Lightning Mountains, and became a known singer, in a land filled with malice and danger. A bard of sorts, Red would sing of conquests and victories. However, one night, an individual took matters into his own hands, and destroyed her privately owned tavern, almost killing her in the process.

Having never had a motivation to learn skills, Red finally saw the light. A natural at swordsmanship, as well as possessing the ability of Storm Release, Red quickly became a feared individual. Her former kind personality, replaced with a harder, more stern one. Red has no known affiliates, and spends most of her time alone. She does the occasional mission to keep herself afloat, and often at times, buy some new clothes.

Other​

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Red carries with her a large number of Ninja Tools in her pouches. This ranges from kunai, to shuriken, to small daggers as well. Red has on her a large sword, oddly shaped. This sword however, does not carry any special abilities.

Scientific Tools: N/A
Artifacts: N/A

Pictures​

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Theme Song and Background Music:​

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Spoiler

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Battles​

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Won: None as of yet
Lost: None as of yet

Dropping:

You must be registered for see links

 

[Detective L]

Psychological Assessment Chapter 4

Spoiler

Chapter 4: Developing a Psychological Measure:

Introduction:

Spoiler

#Survey:

-A series of questions, and to give the people involved a written document to complete.
-Testing is particularly useful when the characteristic is not clearly observable, but important for adequate functioning in a particular setting.
-A test is simply an intervention to make the characteristic observable - that is, it makes the invisible visible.

eg: A test is nothing more than a structured process for making what is basically invisible (a student's knowledge) into something that is visible and can be scored and judged ( the test result).
-Same with how iron fillings can be used to demonstrate the existence of a magnetic field.
-A Psychological test however, is a very carefully constructed and interpreted form of observation.​

Techniques used in Measurement:

#Speed Tests; how many relatively simple items can the person complete in a given time.

#Power Tests; how many items of increasing difficulty can the person complete, in a given time period. Test becomes more difficult as it goes on.​

Types of Content:

1. Verbal;

-Reasoning
-Analogies
-Understanding or Comprehension
-Knowledge
-Language
-Grammar
-Spelling

2. Numerical;

-Arithmetic
-Series

3. Symbolic:

-Mental transport, rotation and assembly
-What shapes go together, etc.

4. Codes:

5. Apparatus:

-Tracking
-Assembly
-Series

6. Narrative:

-Tell what is happening in the situation/​

Application Formats:

-Assessment can be administered in many ways;

1. Pencil and paper.
2. Card sorting (sorting things into piles).
3. Manual (fitting objects together to make a whole, like a jigsaw puzzle).
4. Computer based.
5. Adaptive Testing

#Psychometric Tests;

-Have been designed to measure one or a small number of dimensions, the points for the answers given can be added together to make a single score.​

Steps when developing a Psychological Measure:

1. The Planning Phase:

a) Specify the aims of the measure:

1. The purpose of the measure; what can the measure do, why does it exist, what is its purpose.

2. Characteristics being assessed; what are the characteristics involved, the ones being looked at.

3. Use of the results; what will the results be used for.

4. Population; who is the population being assessed.

5. Individual or Group assessment; will it be for individuals, or for groups.

6. Paper or Computer based assessment

7. Normative, Ipsative or Criterion-referenced measure​

b) Define the content of the measure;

1. Operational definition; how YOU define the measure

2. Cultural Sensitivity; how this aspect is handled

3. Understanding​

c) Develop a test plan;

1. Stimulus (to which test takers respond); what is the stimulus

2. Mechanism (for response)

3. Items;

-Open-ended items
-Forced-choice items
-Sentence-completion
-Performance-based items

4. Objective Formations and Subjective Formations (responses)

5. Speed and Power tests

6. Length, language and bias.​

2. Item Writing:

a) Write the items;

1. Use concise and clear language.
2. Use the appropriate vocabulary.
3. Avoid ambiguity.
4. Multiple Choice
5. True and False items
6. Should be content appropriate​

b) Review the items;

1. Experts to review the items.​

3. Assemble and pre-test the experimental version of the test;

1. Arrangement of items

2. Finalize the length of the measure

3. Answer protocol (answer sheet) helpful when scoring.

4. Develop administration instructions.

5. Pre-test the experimental version of the measure.​

4. Item Analysis Phase;

1. Determine item difficulty

2. Determine discriminating power

3. Investigate item bias.

4. Identify items for the final pool.​

5. Revise and standardize the final version of the measure;

1. Reviews the items and test.

2. Select items for the final version.

3. Revise and standardize administration and scoring procedures.

4. Compile the final version.

5. Administer the final version to a representative sample of the target population.​

6. Technical Evaluation and Establishing Norms;

1. Establish reliability and validity

2. Devise norm tables, setting performance standards and cut points.​

7. Publishing and Ongoing Refinement;

1. Compile the test manual.

2. Submit the measure for classification.

3. Publish and market the measure.

4. Refine and update it continuously.​

Evaluate a measure:

1. How long ago the measure was developed

2. The quality and appeal of the test material

3. The quality of manual content

4. The clarity of test instructions.

5. The cultural appropriateness of the instrument

6. The adequate psychometric properties

7. Nature of norm groups and recency of the norms​

Answer Formats:

-There are various ways in which questions can be answered in Psychological Assessment;

1. Dichotomous Items;

-The simplest ways of assigning a value to any statement is to simply give one point for each item, indicating a response in the desired direction.
-One point for agree, and zero points for disagree.
-A yes or a no.
-Used in multiple choice questions.
-More appropriate if item is either yes or no, right or wrong.

2. Likert Scale;

-A range of possible responses that are arranged from highest to lowest
-Eg: Strongly agree > Agree > Neither agree nor disagree > Disagree > Strongly Disagree

-Allows for a broader range of responses.
-Appropriate when dealing with issues that involves feelings and opinions.
-More an ordinal scale, than an interval scale

3. Category Scale;

-Responses are categorized or defined.

4. Semantic Differential Scale;

-A series of semantic differentials or opposites (something Introversion and Extroversion).

5. Intensity Scale;

-Two extreme poles, no descriptors of categories in between
-Eg Not approachable at all................................................Highly approachable

6. Constant Sum Scale;

-Group different attributes to give you a specific one. all sub-totals add to the full total
-Compare aspects of different phenomena.
-Allocation of a fixed percentage of marks between different options
-Eg:
Nin 10
Gen 70
Tai 20
100

7. Paired Comparison Scale;

-Allocation of a fixed percentage of marks between different options (at a time)
-Eg: Nin 40 60
Gen 80 20
Tai 55 45

8. Graphic Rating Scale;

-Response options are displayed in graphics

9. Forced Choice Scale;

-Participants are forced to make a choice, based on options presented (usually in block form).

10. Ipsative Scoring

-Rank in order of preference, (self-referring)

11. Guttman Scale;

-Arrange items (descriptors) in an ascending order of preference, so that the endorsement of a particular item, probably endorses all items above and none of the items below.​

 

[Detective L]

Psychological Assessment;
Chapter 5
Reliability

Spoiler

Introduction:

Spoiler

-Reliability is a measure of the consistency with which the measure instrument measures.
-The consistency of a measure, to report similar results under similar conditions after different assessments.
-Reliability Coefficient is called the Cronbach's Alpha (denoted in a)​

Why do Random Errors Occur:

1. The Test Itself:

-People may not understand all the items or the design of the item alternatives may be poor.

2. Test Administration:

-Failure to adhere strictly to time limits, noise or other distractions can affect results.
-A poor rapport between administrator and respondent can affect results.

3. Test Scoring:

-Strict or lenient markers can cause errors.
-As well as poor scoring and data capturing procedures.

4. Test Takers:

-Due to language barriers.
-Their mood can also have an influence on their responses.

*Obviously, the more standardized the assessment process and the scoring of the assessment is, the more reliable the technique will be.​

Forms of Reliability:

1. Test-Re-Test Reliability:

-Apply the same technique to the same group of people on two or more occasions.
-It is consistency in achieving the same result on different occasions, that lies at the heat of re-test reliability.
-Administering the same test to the same group of test takers, on different occasions and comparing the results of assessment 1 with assessment 2.

2. Alternate-Form Reliability:

-Administering two equivalent forms of the same measure to the same test takers on different occasions, and comparing the results.

3. Split-Reliability:

-Splitting the measure into half and comparing the coefficient of the two sets of scores.
-Even numbers together and uneven numbers together.

4. Inter-Item Consistency:

-The consistency of responses to all items in the measure.
-Making sure there is a relationship between items in a test.

5. Inter-Scorer Reliability:

-Consistency between raters (two test administrators, and the outcome of the test is compared).

6. Intra-Scorer Reliability:

-Consistency of ratings from one rater.
-Moderator for example, see if it is consistency marker.​

Factors Affecting Reliability:

1. Speed vs Power Tests:

-Speed test based on time, faster writers will do better than slower writers will do worse, even if their abilities are similar.
-Power tests are tests that become more difficult as they go.

2. Length of Scale:

-If the questionnaire is long, people will start ticking off answers to get done, making it less reliable.

3. Subjective Scoring:

-Scoring according to how you feel, personal opinion, etc.​

 

[Detective L]

Psychological Assessment
Chapter 6
Validity

Introduction:

-Validity is the ability of an instrument to measure what it aims to measure.
-Validity is concerned with the extent to which the measure is free of irrelevant or contaminating influences.
-Validity is thus, the ratio of the relevant score to the total or observed score;

-The larger the irrelevant component, the lower the validity
-Irrelevant component, part of true component but not part of what we are trying to measure
-Another name for it is bias
-Even if we get rid of the irrelevant component, the error (random errors) component will remain
-Thus, the validity of any technique cannot be greater than its reliability

Has to do with;

-Entity (what we want to measure)
-Nature (what we want to use)
-Rules (how assessment should be done)​

Forms of Validity:

-There are 3 main forms of Validity;

1. Construct Validity

2. Content Validity

3. Criterion-related Validity

1. Construct Validity (also called Theoretical Validity)

-The degree to which the instrument measures the theoretical construct or trait, it aims to measure.
-Has to do with whether the assessment technique produces results that are in line with what we already know.

a) Convergent Validity;

-Evidence of convergent validity is that results from our assessment measure, correlates with those from similar measures and from those known to be theoretically linked to them.
-Correlate with other measures that we know assess similar concepts or constructs.

b) Divergent Validity:

-The opposite of convergent validity. In this case, the new measure should NOT correlated with measures it is known to be independent of.

c) Factorial Validity (Factor Analysis):

-The factor structure as measured by our new technique, is similar to the factor structures found using other techniques of the same construct.

#Factor analysis consists of methods for finding clusters of related variables. Each such cluster/factor consists of a group of variables whose members correlate more highly with themselves, than they do with variables outside the cluster. Each factor is thought of as a unitary attribute.

2. Content Validity:

-Is concerned with whether the content of the scale or measure accurately reflects the domain it is trying to assess.
-Eg: Is the test proportionally representative of the domain?

-It is the process by which we try to ensure that the various components identified at this stage, are more or less proportionally represented in the final assessment measure.
-This form of validity is assessed essentially by experts; who scrutinize it and decide whether the instrument is a good reflection of the domain being investigated.

a) Face Validity:

-The assessment technique should appear (especially to the uninformed) to be doing what it claims to be doing.
-Does the test scale seem appropriate (in relation to the context of what it is trying to measure).
-Based on face value.

3. Criterion-related Validity:

-Relates the scale outcomes to some external criterion.
-Eg; does the scale successfully distinguish between groups of people known to possess and not to possess, a particular characteristic?

a) Concurrent Validity;

-Designed to ask whether the measure successfully distinguishes between known groups.
-Eg; test of typing ability should be able to distinguish between people known to type well, and those known to type badly.
-Measures what you have, at that moment.

b) Predictive Validity;

-Does not focus on groups that are known to differ at present, but instead on whether the assessment procedure can predict how groups may differ in the future.
-Measures the potential of what can be had.

Other types of validity:

1. Ecological Validity (or Contextual Validity):

-Concerned with whether the results of the assessment are meaningful and useful outside the setting in which they are obtained.
-Like experiments done in labs, re they meaningful and useful in the real world.

2. Incremental Validity:

-The extent to which the inclusion of a 2nd predictor improves the predictive power, of a particular variable.
-In some cases, the inclusion of a second predictor may actually reduce the predictive value of the first predictor and has negative incremental validity.

3. Unitary Validity:

-Considered the entire body of knowledge, containing all facets of validity.

#Validity can be .01 (in science) and 0.5 (in social sciences) to be valid.​

Factors Affecting Validity:

1. Reliability of a measure:

2. 2. Differential impact of sub-groups:

-Different age groups would have a different understanding of the concept being measured, so they will answer or interpret it differently.
-Can be age groups, males and females, etc.

3. Sample Homogeneity:

-If the same type of people are targeted for the assessment.
-Has to be generalized.

4. Criterion Contamination:

-When there is an item that negatively impacts the measure, it can bring down the validity.

5. Moderator Variables:

-A confounding variable, something that is present but was not intended to be measured.​

 

[Detective L]

Oop

 

[Detective L]

Chapter 6:

 The main causes of Business Failure:

-Bad management
-Lack of managerial experience
-Poor business planning
-Poor marketing
-Poor human resource relations​

 The role of management

1. Directs a business towards its goals (goals/objectives are the starting point for management process and the guideline for developing future plans).

2. Sets and keeps the operations of the business on a balanced course.

3. Keeps the organisation in equilibrium with its environment (adapts it to change and changes it)

4. Is necessary to reach the goals of the organisation at the highest possible level of productivity (least input - greatest possible output)​

 Definition of management

-Management is defined as the process followed by managers to accomplish a business’s goals and objectives.
-It is a process of activities that is carried out to enable a business to accomplish its goals by employing human, financial and physical resources for that purpose.​

 What do managers do? [Remember, P O L C ]

1. Planning: management decides what should be done

-Defining goals, establishing strategies to achieve goals, developing plans to integrate and coordinate activities


2. Organizing: management decides how it should be done

-Arranging and structuring work to accomplish organizational goals.

3. Leading: management says how and when it should be done

-Working with and through people to accomplish goals.
-Directing the human resources and motivating them

4. Control: management ascertains whether the tasks have been carried out.

-Constantly establish if business is on a proper course​

 The different levels and functional areas of management in businesses:

1. Top Management:

-Small group of executives who control the business and have the final authority and responsibility.
-For example, board of directors, partners, managing director

2. Middle Management:

-Responsible for certain functional areas of the business and accountable for executing policies, plans and strategies determined by top management
-For example, marketing manager, purchasing manager, human resources manager

3. Lower Management:

-Supervisory management, responsible for smaller segments of business
-For example, the marketing department could have a product manager, promotions manager or sales manager. Supervisors and foremen are also included in lower management.


*Functional Areas of Management:

-FUNCTIONAL MANAGERS = The specialised managers necessary for the different functions of the business
-Only responsible for the specified management activities of their functions or departments
-Plan, organise, lead and control THEIR departments
-Number and importance of specialized areas vary from business to business
-Only one organisational function (very specific purpose)

*The Function of General Management:

-Integrates all other functions of management
-Deals with activities of top management​

 Skills needed at different managerial levels:

1. Conceptual skills:

-The mental capacity to view the business and its parts in a holistic manner – to grasp the interrelationship of the different parts
-Conceptual skills refer to the ability to understand abstract ideas in order to make decisions whereby alternatives are selected to solve problems

2. Interpersonal skills:

-The ability to work well with other people.
-Dealing with people 60% of the time
-Should be able to communicate with and motivate groups as well as individuals
-Managers must improve their interpersonal skills to manage workforce diversity, change and conflict among people
-Effective interpersonal skills allow managers at all levels to motivate and evaluate the performance of their employees

3. Technical skills:

-The ability to use methods, processes and techniques to perform a task
-Knowledge and proficiency in a specific field
E.g. accounting, economics, engineering
-Engineering supervisors, market research managers – when these managers work on budgets, for example, may need computer skills in spreadsheet software applications like Excel, ACCPAC, etc.​

 The role of managers:

1. Interpersonal roles

a) Figurehead

-In your figurehead role, you show visitors around your company, attend employee birthday parties, and present ethical guidelines to your subordinates. In other words, you perform symbolic tasks that represent your organization

b) Leader

-You are responsible for the actions of your subordinates, as their successes and failures reflect on you. Your leadership is expressed in your decisions about training, motivating, and disciplining people

c) Liaison

-In your liaison role, you must act like a politician, working with other people outside your work unit and organization to develop alliances that will help you achieve your organization’s goals.

2. Informational roles:

a) Monitor:

-As a monitor, you should be constantly alert for useful information, whether gathered from newspaper stories about the competition or gathered from snippets of conversation with subordinates.

b) Disseminator:

-Workers complain they never know what’s going on? That probably means their supervisor failed in the role of disseminator. Managers need to constantly disseminate important information to employees, as via e-mail and meetings.

c) Spokesperson:

You are expected, of course, to be a diplomat, to put the best face on the activities of your work unit or organization to people outside it.

3. Decision- making roles:

a) Entrepreneur

A good manager is expected to be an entrepreneur, to initiate and encourage change and innovation.

b) Disturbance handler

-Unforeseen problems—from product defects to international currency crises—require you be a disturbance handler, fixing problems.

c) Resource allocator

-Critical management decision
-Decides what quantities of resources such as people, equipment and money each part of the department or organisation should receive

d) Negotiator

-Due to his/her authority to allocate resources and his/her access to information, the manager is involved in negotiations within the company​

 

[Detective L]

Chapter 7:

 Definition of planning:

-A basic*management function involving formulation of one or more*detailed plans to achieve optimum balance of needs or demands with the available resources
-Planning occurs in all organisations at all levels
-Can plan to steer the organisation in the best possible direction, taking into consideration strengths and weaknesses​

 The benefits of planning:

1. Planning provides direction:

-in the form of; (1) Goals (By creating a blueprint of where the organisation is heading) and (2) Plans (Formulating plans how to achieve these goals)

2. Planning reduces the impact of change:

-The process of goal-setting and planning is by nature future oriented.
-Constantly scan the environment to anticipate change

3. Planning promotes coordination:

-Focuses all activities in an organisation in one direction:
-To attain the organisation’s goals effectively and efficiently
-Cooperation and teamwork fostered when all departments coordinate their activities

4. Planning ensures cohesion:

-Complexity of organisations and the interdependence of all parts of the organisation (individuals, sections, departments and teams, etc) emphasise the necessity of planning to ensure cohesion
-Enables top management to see the organisation holistically

5. Planning facilitates control:

-Control is the process by which management ensures that the actual organisational activities are compatible with the predetermined goals and planned activities.
-Without planning control cannot take place​

 Managerial goals and plans

1. Organisational goal

-A desirable state of affairs that an organisation aims to achieve at some point in the future

2. Organisational plan

-The means by which the goal is to be realized​

 The Nature of Goals:

1. Goals are the starting point of the planning process
2. Goals pertain to different aspects of the organisation
3. Goals may be short, intermediate or long term
4. Goals may be publicly stated or not​

 Importance of Goals:

1. Goals provide guidance and agreement
2. Goals facilitate effective planning in terms of resource development
3. Goals can inspire and motivate employees
4. Link between performance and rewards
5. Goals provide a basis for evaluation
6. Effective goal setting plays an important part in the success of organisations​

 Criteria for Effective Goals: [Remember S M A R T]

1. Specific

(What the goal relates to, the period & specific desired results)

2. Measurable

(Objective and quantifiable)

3. Attainable

(Realistic & challenging)

4. Relevant

(Relate to organisation’s mission & strategic goals)

5. Time-bound

(Specific time limit)​

 The Planning Process:

Step 1: Establish goals

Step 2: Develop alternative plans

Step 3: Evaluate alternative plans

Step 4: Select a plan

Step 5: Implement the plan

Step 6: Do reactive planning​

 Implementation of Plans:

-Developing a framework for execution
-Leadership to set the plan in motion
-Control to determine performance
-Reactive planning may be necessary​

 

[Detective L]

Chapter 8:
Organizing

 Definition of organization:

-Organising is the process of delegating and coordinating tasks, activities and resources in order to achieve organisational objectives.

*Organizational culture; consists of the set of shared, taken-for-granted implicit assumptions that a group holds in the workplace.

*Organizational structure; describes who reports to whom and who does what.

-An organization is a system of consciously coordinated activities or forces of two or more people.​

 Organizational Structure:

-An organization is a system of consciously coordinated activities or forces of two or more people.
-There are three types of organizations classified according to the three different purposes for which they are formed:
for-profit,
non-profit,
and mutual-benefit

-Two kinds of information that organizations reveal about organizational structure are;

-the vertical hierarchy of authority—who reports to whom, and
-the horizontal specialization—who specializes in what work.​

 The importance of organization:

1. Provides detailed analysis of work to be done and resources to be used to accomplish goals of business;

-Identifying what needs to be done
-How exactly activities should be carried out
-How resources should be allocated to business activities

2. Divides the total workload into activities that can comfortably be performed by an individual or a group;

-Workload spread evenly and according to abilities

3. Promotes productive deployment and utilization of resources;

-Marketing, finance (not just the fun stuff!!)

4. Related activities and tasks of individuals are grouped together rationally in specialized departments;

-Allows individuals to concentrate on their field of expertise

5. Development of an organisational structure results in a mechanism that co-ordinates the activities of the whole business into a complete, uniform and harmonious unit;

-Marketing should work with operations on customer demands and preferences, etc.​

 

[Detective L]

Chapter 9:

 The nature of leadership:

-process of influencing employees to work willingly towards the achievement of organisational objectives
-Number of important terms here, but two of particular importance:

1. Influence – used in a very wide context here. E.g. giving instructions to a subordinate would fall under the definition of “influencing”, but so too would threatening a subordinate with dismissal is his or her performance does not improve (not the best example of good leadership)
-Leadership is clearly a process of social influence directed at stimulating action towards achieving the goals of the business.

2. willingly - This refers to influencing the behaviour of employees to pursue the goals of the business willingly and not under coercion or through the use of power and formal authority​

 Leadership theories:

1. Trait Theory;

-Involves the identification and analysis of the traits of strong leaders.

2. Behavioral Theory;

-Looks at how successful leaders behave differently compared to unsuccessful leaders.

3. Contingency Theory;

-Attempts to determine the best leadership style for a given situation.

4. Contemporary Approaches to Leadership;

-Trust is a vital component of effective leadership

Five dimensions of trust:

1. Integrity
-A manager’s honesty and truthfulness

2. Competence
-Technical and interpersonal knowledge and skills

3. Consistency
Reliability, predictability and good judgment in handling situations

4. Loyalty
Willingness to protect another person

5. Openness.
Reliability when it comes to telling the truth​

Types of leadership

-Charismatic leadership
-Visionary leadership
-Transactional and transformational leadership

Emerging approaches to leadership

-Strategic leadership
-Cross-cultural leadership
-Ethical leadership
-Servant leadership​

 Motivation:

-Motivation is an inner desire to satisfy an unsatisfied need
-It is essential that managers understand what motivates the behaviour of their employees
-By understanding what motivates them, a manager can influence employee work performance
-Performance is determined by employee ability, motivation and resources

Basic motivational concepts;

Motivation—the forces within the individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work.
Reward—a work outcome of positive value to the individual
Extrinsic rewards—valued outcomes given to someone by another person.
Intrinsic rewards—valued outcomes that occur naturally as a person works on a task.

-Motivation is an inner desire to satisfy an unsatisfied need

-It is an intrinsic process and therefore managers cannot “motivate” their employees
BUT
They can create a working environment where their employees will be motivated to achieve the organisation’s goals.

-Motivation is the willingness of an employee to achieve the organisation’s goals

Needs

-Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of an individual.
-Explain workplace behavior and attitudes.
-Create tensions that influence attitudes and behavior.
-Good managers and leaders facilitate employee need satisfaction.

-If managers understand what motivates the behaviour of their employees, they can influence the employees’ work performance.
-Motivation not the only factor that influences work performance
-The variables that determine performance are:

>Motivation
>Ability (training, knowledge and skills)
>And the opportunity to perform (resources)​

 

[Detective L]

Chapter One

Introduction to Organizational Development:

Burke's Definition of OD:

Organizational Development is a planned process of change in an organization's culture, through the utilization of behavior science, technology, research and theory.​

French's Definition of OD:

Organizational Development refers to the long-range effort to improve an organizations' problem solving capabilities and its ability to cope with changes in its external or internal environment with the help of behavioral-scientist consultants.​

Beckhard's Definition of OD:

Organizational Development is an effort (1) planned, (2) organization wide, (3) managed from the top, (4) increase organization effectiveness and health through (5) planned interventions in the organization's processes using behavioral science knowledge.​

Beer's Definition of OD:

Organizational Development is a system-wide process of data collection, diagnosis, action planning, intervention and evaluation, aimed at;

1. Enhancing congruence between organizational structure, process, strategy, people and culture.

2. Developing new and creative organizational solutions.

3. Developing the organizations' self renewing capacity.

-It occurs through collaboration of organizational members, working with a change agent, using behavioral science theory, research and technology.​

Definition of OD:

A system-wide application and transfer of behavioral science knowledge, to the planned development, improvement and reinforcement of strategies, structures and processes that lead to organizational effectiveness.​

➟ OD is mostly known for its attention to the process of change.
➟ It addresses the effective implementation of planned change.
➟ It supports values of human potential, participation and development, in addition to performance and competitive advantage.
➟ Development is concerned with the transfer of knowledge and skill, so that the system is more able to manage change in the future.

➟ Change management on the other hand, focuses more narrowly on cost, and quality. It does not necessarily require the transfer of these skills.
➟ Organizational Change is a broader concept than OD.
➟ It can be applied to any kind of change, including technical and managerial innovations or organizational decline.​

History of OD:

➟ OD emerged from 5 stems or major backgrounds;

1. Laboratory Training (the so-called T-Groups)

➟ People are put in small unstructured group activity where participants learn from their own interactions and evolving dynamics about issues like interpersonal relations, personal growth and leadership.
➟ Observers then discuss what behaviors and group dynamics they have observed.
➟ Feedback about group interaction can then be provided, and group building processes can commence.
➟ The practical aspect of T-Group techniques are known as Team Building.

➟ Team Building; a process for helping work groups become more effective in accomplishing tasks and satisfying member needs.
➟ It is one of the most common and institutionalized forms of OD.​

2. Action Research/Survey Feedback:

➟ Scientists found that research needed to be closely linked to action, if organization members were to use it to manage change.
➟ Has to do with collecting research data about an organizations' functioning, to analyze it for causes of problems and to devise and implement solutions.
➟ After implementation, further data is collected to assess the results and the cycle of data collection and research is often continuous.
➟ Feedback is given to task groups, who can discuss the data.
➟ The research results can result in guiding action and change in the organization.​

3. Normative Background:

➟ Has to do with the belief that a human relations approach represents a one best way to manage organizations, like;​

A. Likert's Participative Management Program;

➟ Program characterized organizations as having of 4 types of managements systems;

1. Exploitative Authoritative Systems;

➟ Exhibits an autocratic, top-down approach to leadership, employee motivation based on punishment and occasional rewards.
➟ Decision-making and control reside at the top of the organization.
➟ Results in mediocre performance.

2. Benevolent Authoritative Systems;

➟ Similar to first system, but management is more paternalistic.
➟ Employees allowed a little more interaction, communication and decision-making within boundaries, defined by management.

3. Consultive Systems;

➟ Represents increased employee interaction, communication and decision-making
➟ Although employees are consulted about problems and decisions, management makes final decision.
➟ Productivity is good, and employees are moderately satisfied with the organization.

4. Participative Group Systems;

➟ Opposite of system 1.
➟ Fosters high degrees of member involvement and participation.
➟ Work groups are highly involved in setting goals, making decisions, improving methods and appraising results.
➟ Communication occurs laterally and vertically.
➟ Achieves high levels of productivity, quality and member satisfaction.​

B. Blake and Mouton's Managerial Grid;

➟ The managerial grid originated from research about managerial and organizational effectiveness.
➟ In it, the individual's style can be described according to their concern for production and concern for people (has to do with managers that have high concerns for these 2 dimensions).
➟ 9, 9 = most effective in overcoming communication barriers to corporate excellence.
➟ The so-called 1, 9 managers have a low concern for production and a high concern for people.
➟ On the other hand, the 9, 1 managers have a low concern for people and a high concern for production.

➟ The grid has two key objectives;

1. To improve planning
2. Help managers gain the necessary knowledge and skills to supervise effectively.

➟ It contains 6 phases;

1. A one week programme where participants analyze their personal style and learn methods of problem solving.
2. Consists of team development.
3. Involves inter-group development.
4. An ideal mode of organizational excellence is developed.
5. The model is implemented.
6. Consists of an evaluation of the organization.​

4. Productivity and Quality-of-Work-Life Background:

➟ Involves the joint participation by unions and management in work design. Thus, employees gave high levels of discretion, task variety and feedback.
➟ Self-managing work groups are a form of this approach.

➟ QWL = people's reaction to work, also as specific techniques and approaches used for improving work and viewed as synonymous with methods like job enrichment, self-managed teams, and labour management committees.

➟Quality circles; groups of employees trained in problem-solving methods that meet regularly to resolve work environment, productivity and quality control concerns and to develop more efficient ways of working.
➟ Continues under the banner of EI (employee involvement) which is the growing emphasis on how employees can contribute more to running the organization, so it can be more flexible, productive and competitive.​

5. Strategic Change Background:

➟ Involves aligning organization environment, strategy and organization design.
➟ SC interventions include efforts to improve both the organizations relationship to its environment and the fit between technical, political and cultural systems.
➟ The need for SC is usually triggered by major disruption to the organization like technological breakthrough or a new CEO.
➟ SC involves multiple levels of the organization and a change in its culture.
➟ Implementing SC requires OD practitioners to be familiar with competitive strategy, finance, marketing, team-building, action research and survey feedback.​

 

[Detective L]

Chapter Two

Diagnosing Organizations

What is Diagnosis:

➟ It happens before intervention.
➟ Diagnosis is aligned with the predominant values underlying OD, with an emphasis on the joint and collaborative nature of the diagnostic process.
➟ Purpose of diagnosis is to uncover the true causes of the problem.

➟ Diagnosis points the organization and the OD practitioner toward a set of appropriate intervention activities, that will improve organizational effectiveness. It is thus, the process of understanding how the organization is currently functioning and provides the information necessary to design change interventions.
➟OD practitioners and organization members jointly determine issues to focus on and how to work together to develop action steps from the diagnoses.

➟ Additionally, the organization and OD practitioner may be looking for ways to enhance the organizations existing functioning, to discover areas of future development.​

The Need for Diagnostic Models:

➟ A framework is needed to ensure all important areas of concern are addressed.
➟ To work without a model causes two issues;

1. The client cannot work with the OD practitioner or agree that the model makes sense.

2. The practitioner takes the risk that some important category of data is not collected, that may be an important cause of the problem or issue.

➟Biased Diagnoses; focusing attention on certain features as critical, to the exclusion of others.

Diagnostic Model;

➟ Is a conceptual framework that people use to understand organizations.
➟ They describe relationships among different features of the organization, as well as the context and its effectiveness. As a result, Diagnostic Models point out what areas to examine and what questions to as in assessing how an organization functions.

➟ Diagnostic Models can be derived from noting the dimensions or variables that are associated with an organizations' effectiveness, like employee stress, leadership, motivation, etc. as well as the larger organization, and its context.​

The Open Systems Model:

Organizations as open-systems;

➟The systems theory is a set of concepts and relationships describing the behaviors and properties of things called systems - organizations, groups and people.
➟ Systems are viewed as unitary wholes composed of parts or subsystems, the system servers to integrate the parts into a functioning unit.

➟eg: Organization systems are composed into departments, like sales, operations and finance.

➟ The organization serves to coordinate behaviors of its departments so that they function together in service of a goal or strategy.
➟ The Open Systems Model suggests that organizations operate within an external environment, takes specific inputs (information, energy) from the environment and transforms those inputs using social and technical power.

➟ The outputs (finished goods, services, ideas) of the transformation process are returned to the environment and can be used as feedback to the organizations' functioning.
➟ This model also suggests that organizations and their sub-systems - departments, groups and individuals - share a number of common features that explain how they are organized and function.

A. Environments:

➟ Open systems exchange information and resources with their environments.
➟ Opens systems such as organizations and people, cannot completely control their behavior and are in part, influenced by external forces like;

1. Availability of labor and human capital
2. Raw materials
3. Customer demands
4. Competition

B. Inputs, Transformation and Outputs:

1. Inputs;

➟ Consists of human or other resources, like information or raw materials, coming into the system, acquired from the external environment.
➟ Eg; raw materials from supplier.

2. Transformation;

➟ Are the processes of converting inputs into outputs.
➟ An operations function in an organization composed of both social and technological components, generally carries out transformation.
➟ Social component consists of people and their work relationship, and technological component consists of tools, techniques and methods of production.

3. Outputs;

➟ Are the results of what has been transformed by the system and sent to the environment.
➟ Thus, inputs that have been transformed represent outputs ready to leave the system.

C. Boundaries:

➟ The idea of boundaries help us distinguish between systems and environments.
➟ Boundaries - the borders or the limits of the system that are easily seen in many biological and mechanical systems.
➟ However, defining the boundaries of social systems is difficult because there is continuous inflow and outflow through them.

D. Feedback:

➟ Is information regarding the actual performance or the output results of the system. However, only information used to control the future functioning of the system, is considered feedback.
➟ Feedback can be used to maintain the system in a steady state, or to help the organization adapt to changing circumstances.

E. Alignment:

➟ A system's overall effectiveness is partly determined by the extent to which the different subsystems are aligned with each other.
➟ This alignment or fit concerns the relationship between the organization and its environment, between inputs and transformations, between transformations and outputs, and among the systems of the transformation process.
➟ Alignment refers to a characteristic of the relationship between two or more parts. It represents the extent to which the features, operations and characteristics of one system support the effectiveness of another system. That is, the parts of an organization need to mesh for it to be effective.​

Diagnosing Organizational Systems:

➟ Organizations can be diagnosed at 3 levels;

1. The Organization;

➟ Includes company strategy, structure and processes.
➟ Also, large organization units like divisions and subsidiaries.

2. The Group;

➟ Includes the group design for structuring interactions among members like norms and work schedules.

3. The Individual;

➟ Include the ways in which jobs are designed to elicit required task behaviors.​

➟ Diagnoses can occur at all 3 levels of the organization levels or it may be limited to issues at a specific level.

Organizational Level Diagnosis;

1. Inputs;

1. General Environment:

➟ Consists of all external forces and elements that can influence an organization and its effectiveness.
➟ The environment can be described in terms of the amount of uncertainty present in social, technological economic and political forces.
➟ Each of these forces can affect the organization in both direct and indirect ways.

2. Task Environment or Industry Structure:

➟ Strategic orientations must be sensitive to the 5 following forces;

a) Supplier power
b) Buyer power
c) Threats of substitutes
d) Threats of new products and services
e) Rivalry among competitors

➟ Together, these forces play an important role in determining the success of an organization, whether it is a manufacturing/service firm, non-profit organization or government agency.

3. Dynamic-state Continuum:

➟ The rate of change in an organization's general environment (industry structure) can be characterized along a dynamic-static continuum.
➟ Dynamic environments change rapidly and unpredictably and suggest a flexible strategic orientation.
➟ They are also high in uncertainty compared to static environments that do not change frequently or dramatically.

#Environmental Dimensions:

1. Information uncertainty;

➟ Organizations seek to remove uncertainty from the environment so that they know best how to transact with it.
➟ The greater the uncertainty, the more information processing is required to learn about the environment.
➟ Environments that are complex and rapidly changing pose difficult information processing problems.

2. Resource Dependence;

➟ Concerns the degree to which an organization relies on other organizations for resources.

➟ Organizations have the most freedom from external sources when information uncertainty and resource dependence are both low. In this case, organizations do not need to respond to their environment and can behave relatively independent of them. Thus, they can operate with relatively little constraints or threat.

➟ Organizations are more constrained and must be more responsive to external demands as information uncertainty and resource independence increase. They must perceive the environment quickly, accurately and respond to it appropriately.​

2. Design Components:

1. Strategy:

➟ Represents the way an organization uses its resources (human, economic or technical) to achieve its goals and gain a competitive advantage.
➟ Described by the organization's mission, goals, and objectives, strategic intent and functional policies.

2. Technology:

➟ Concerned with the way an organization converts inputs into products and services.
➟ It represents the core transformation processes and includes production methods, workflow and equipment. Two features of technology have been shown to influence other design components;

a) Technical Interdependence; involves ways in which the different parts of a tech system are related. High interdependence requires considerable coordination among tasks.

b) Technical Uncertainty; refers to the amount of information processing and decision-making required during task performance.

3. Structure:

➟ Describes how attention and resources are focused on task accomplishment.
➟ It concerns dividing the overall work of an organization into sub-units, that can assign tasks to individuals or groups, and coordinate these sub-units form completion of the overall work.

4. Measurement:

➟ Are methods of gathering, assessing and disseminating information on the activities of groups and individuals in the organization.
➟ It tells us how an organization is performing and is used to detect and control deviations from the goal.

5. Human Resource:

➟ Include aspects of selecting, developing, appraising and rewarding staff members.
➟ Appraisals identify whether skills and knowledge are applied and reward systems recognize performance that contributes to goal achievement.​

Organizational Culture:

➟ Represents the basic assumptions, values and norms shared by members of the organization.

3. Outputs:

1. Financial Outputs:

➟ Sales, profits, return of investments.

2. Productivity:

➟ Sales per employee, quality

3. Stakeholder Satisfaction:

➟ Customers, employees and investors.​

4. Alignment:

➟ The effectiveness of an organizations' current strategic orientation, requires knowledge of the above information to determine the alignment among the different elements.
➟ Diagnosis involves understand each of the parts in the model, then assessing how the elements of the strategic orientation align with each other and with the inputs.
➟ Organization effectiveness is likely to be high when there is good alignment.

 

[Detective L]

Chapter Three

Group and Individual Level Diagnoses:

1. Inputs:

➟ Organization design comprised of;

a) Technology; can determine the characteristics of group tasks.

b) Structure; can specify the level of coordination required among groups.

c) Human Resource and Reward System; play important role in determining team functioning.​

2. Design Components:

1. Goal Clarity:

➟ Involves how well the group understands its objectives.
➟ Should be clear and understood by all.

2. Task Structure:

➟ Has to do with how the group's work is designed.
➟ Carries along two dimensions;

a) Coordination of members' effort;

➟ Degree to which group tasks are structured to promote effective interaction among group members.

b) Regulation of their task behaviors;

➟ Degree to which members can control their own task behaviors and be relatively free from external controls.

3. Group Composition:

➟ Concerns the membership of the group.

4. Team Functioning:

➟ The underlying basis of group life.
➟ The quality of relationships in work groups can affect task performance.

5. Performance Norms:

➟ Member beliefs about how the group should perform its task.
➟ Derived from interactions among members and serve as guides to group behavior.​

3. Outputs:

➟ Group effectiveness has 2 dimensions;

a) Performance;

➟ Measured in terms of group's ability to control or reduce costs, or improve quality.

b) Quality of Work Life;

➟ Concerns work satisfaction, team cohesion and organizational commitment.​

4. Alignment:

➟ Group design should be congruent with larger organizational design.
➟ If technology results in interdependent tasks, coordination among members should be promoted by goal clarity, etc.​

Individual Level Diagnosis:

1. Inputs:

1. Organization Design:

➟ Concerned with larger organization within which the individual job is the smaller unit.
➟ Have a powerful impact on the way jobs are designed.

2. Group Design:

➟ Concerns the larger group, or department containing the individual job.
➟ Serves as inputs to job design.

3. Personal characteristics of job holders:

➟ Include their age, education, experience, skills and abilities, which can affect job performance as well as how people react to job design.
➟ Individual needs and expectations can also affect job performance as well as how people react to job designs.
➟ Individual needs and expectations can also affect employee job responses.​

2. Design Components:

1. Skill Variety:

➟ The degree to which a job requires a range of activities and abilities to perform the work.

2. Task Identity:

➟ Measures the degree to which job requires the completion of a relatively whole, identifiable piece of work.

3. Task Significance:

➟ Identifies degree to which a job has significant impact on other people's lives.

4. Autonomy:

➟ Indicates the degree of freedom and discretion that a job provides, in scheduling the work and determining the work methods.

5. Feedback:

➟ Involves the degree to which a job provides employees with clear and direct information about the effectiveness of task performance.​

3. Alignment:

➟ Job design must fit job inputs to produce effective job outputs like high individual performance, low absenteeism and high job satisfaction.​

 

[Detective L]

Chapter 4:

Collecting and Analyzing Diagnostic Information:

The Diagnostic Relationship:

➟ Simply a more specific contracting process.
➟ Importance of proper data collection and joint diagnosis, prior to feedback.
➟ These key elements need to be understood and utilized to;

1) Rally energy for change
2) Obtain valid information
3) Develop a collaborative relationship

➟ The diagnostic relationship is meant to clarify expectations and to specify the conditions of the relationship.
➟ Answers to the following questions provide the substance of the diagnostic construct;

Who am I? ➟ Introducing the OD practitioner to the organization.
Why am I here? ➟ Defining the goals of the diagnoses and data gathering activities.
Who do I work for? ➟ Who hired the consultant (manager, etc).
What do I want from you? ➟ How much time and effort people will need to give to provide data.
How will I protect your confidentiality? ➟ Assuring employees that their data is safe, etc.
Who will have access to your data? ➟ Providing respondents with their own results.
What's in it for you? ➟ Benefits of diagnoses.
Can I be trusted? ➟ Concerns the trust established between the consultant and those providing data.​

Methods of Collecting Data:

1. Questionnaires.
2. Interviews.
3. Observations.
4. Unobtrusive Measures.​

1. Questionnaires:

Advantages;

➟ Responses can be quantified and summarized.
➟ Large samples and large quantities of data.
➟ Relatively inexpensive.

Disadvantages;

➟ Little opportunity for empathy with subjects.
➟ Predetermined questions.
➟ Over-interpretation of data possible.
➟ Response biases possible.​

2. Interviews:

Advantages;

➟ Adaptive, allows for some customization.
➟ Source of rich data.
➟ Empathetic
➟ Process builds rapport with subjects.

Disadvantages;

➟ Relatively expensive.
➟ Bias in interviewer responses
➟ Coding and interpretation can be difficult
➟ Self-report bias possible​

3. Observations:

Advantages;

➟ Collect data on actual behavior, rather than reports of behavior.
➟ Real time, not retrospective.
➟ Adaptive.

Disadvantages;

➟ Coding and interpretation difficulties
➟ Sampling inconsistencies
➟ Observer bias and questionable reliability
➟ Adaptive​

4. Unobtrusive Measures;

Advantages;

➟ Non-reactive, no response bias
➟ High face validity
➟ Easily quantified

Disadvantages;

➟ Access and retrieval difficulties
➟ Validity concerns
➟ Coding and interpretation difficulties​

Sampling:

➟ Samples of people or records should adequately represent the characteristics of the total population.
➟ The appropriate sample size is important.
➟ The necessary sample size is a function of population size, the confidence desired in quality of data and resources available for data collection.
➟ Different types of samples might be considered;

a) Random samples like simple random sampling (each member in the population has an equal chance of being selected).

b) Stratified samples ( the population of members or records is segregated into a number of mutually exclusive sub-populations and a random sample is taken from each sub-population).​

Techniques for Analyzing Data:

➟ Classified into;

1. Qualitative Techniques (easier to use because they do not rely on numerical data).

2. Quantitative Techniques (provide more accurate readings).​

A. Qualitative Tools:

1. Content Analysis:

➟ Attempt to summarize comments (interview data) into meaningful categories.
➟ Hundreds of comments into a few themes, that summarize issues or attitudes.

2. Force-Field Analysis:

a) Organizational Behavior is a balance between forces in opposite directions.
b) Restraining forces act to keep the organization stable.
c) Driving forces act to change the organization.
d) When 2 forces are equal, the organization is in a quasi-stationary state of equilibrium.
e) Analysis of force determines which force to increase or decrease to bring about change.​

B. Quantitative Tools:

1. Means, Standard Deviations and Frequency Distributions:

➟ They represent the respondents average score and spread/variability of scores, and are the most straightforward ways to summarize quantitative data.

2. Scattergrams and Correlation Coefficients:

➟ Are measures of the strength of a relationship between two variables.

3. Difference tests:

➟ Used to determine whether two or more samples are significantly different from each other.​

 

[Detective L]

Chapter 5:

Feeding Back Diagnostic Information:

Determining the content of the feedback

A. Relevant ➟ Include managers and employees in initial data collection and make information meaningful.
B. Understandable ➟ Make data understandable.
C. Descriptive ➟ Link data to real organizational behaviors (illustrations and examples).
D. Verifiable ➟ Organization members should verify whether feedback data accurately represents organizational events and attitudes.
E. Limited ➟ Limit feedback data to what employees can realistically process at the time.
F. Timely ➟ Data should be fed as quickly as possible.
G. Impactful ➟ Limit feedback to problems that organization members can do something about.
H. Comparative ➟ Provide organizations members an idea as to how their group fits into a broader context.
I. Unfinalized ➟ Use data as starting point for more in-depth discussions of organized issues.​

Characteristics of Feedback Process:

1. Motivation to work with data;

➟ People need to feel that working with feedback data will have beneficial outcomes, feel free to raise issues and identify concerns during feedback sessions.

2. Structure for the meeting;

➟ Need structure, or may degenerate into aimless discussions, an agenda, an outline, and discussion leader, can provide the necessary direction.

3. Appropriate attendance;

➟ People who have common problems and can benefit from working together should be included in feedback meeting.

4. Appropriate power;

➟ If the group has no power to make changes, the feedback meeting will become an empty exercise rather than a problem solving session.

5. Process help;

➟ OD practitioner with group process skills can help members stay focused on the subject and improve feedback discussions, problem-solving and ownership.​

Survey Feedback:

1. What are the steps?

a) Members of the organization are involved in the preliminary planning of the survey.

b) Survey instrument administered to all members of organization.

c) OD consultant usually analyses survey data, tabulates the results, suggests approaches to diagnose and train client members to lead the feedback process.

d) Data feedback usually begins at top of any organization and cascades down to groups, reporting to managers at successfully lower levels.

e) Feedback meetings provide opportunity to work with data.

2. Survey Feedback and Organizational Dependencies:

➟ Needs to be coordinated across interdependent groups.

3. Limitations of Survey Feedback:

➟ Ambiguity of purposes
➟ Distrust in organization can render feedback ineffective.
➟ Unacceptable topics
➟ Organizational Disturbances​

 

[Detective L]

Interpersonal, Individual, Group and Organizational Process Interventions

Diagnostic Issues in Individual and Group Process Interventions:

1. Communication;

➟ Concerns the nature and style of communication, or the process of transmitting and receiving thought, facts and feeling.
➟ Can be overt or covert.

2. The functional roles of members;

➟ Individuals must address and understand their self-identity, influence and power, that will satisfy personal needs while working to accomplish group goals.
➟ Group members must take on roles that enhance, (1) task related activities and (2)group maintainance actions.

3. Group Problem-Solving and Decision-Making;

➟ To be effective a group must be able to identify problems, examine alternatives and make decisions (eg: decisions can be made by;

1. ignoring a suggestion
2. minority rule
3. majority rule
4. consensus and unanimous consent (ideal, but time consuming).

4. Group Norms;

➟ Over time, groups develop standards of behaviors about what is good or bad, allowed or forbidden, right or wrong.
➟ Assist the group to understand and articulate its own norms and to determine whether those norms are helpful or dysfunctional.

5. The use of leadership and authority:

➟ Different leadership styles can help or hinder a groups functioning, and help the leader adjust their style to fit the situation.​

Process Consultation:

A. Principles to guide the process consultant's actions;

1. Always try to be helpful.
2. Always stay in touch with the current reality.
3. Access your ignorance.
4. Everything you do, is an intervention.
5. The clients own the problem and the solution.
6. Go with the flow.
7. Timing is crucial.
8. Be constructively opportunistic with confrontive interventions.
9. Everything is information, errors will always occur and the prime source of learning.
10. When in doubt, share the problem.

B. Basic Process Interventions

1. Individual Interventions
2. Group Interventions
3. Content Interventions
4. Structural Interventions​

Third Party Interventions:

➟ Focuses on conflicts arising between two or more people within the same organization.
➟ Helps parties interact with each other directly, facilitating their diagnosis of the conflict and its resolution.
➟ Ingredients used by their party consultants for examining the members' differences are (also called Facilitating the Conflict Resolution Process);

1. Mutual motivation to resolve conflict.
2. Equality of power between parties.
3. Coordinated attempts to confront the conflict.
4. Relevant phasing of stages of identifying differences and searching for integrative solutions.
5. Open and clear forms of communication, and productive levels of tension and stress.

➟ Tactics in gathering data through preliminary interviews;

1. Group process observations can also be used.
2. Data gathered provide understanding of the nature and the type of conflict, the personality and conflict styles of the individuals involved and the participants' readiness to work together to resolve conflict.

➟ The context is important;

1. Neutrality of the meeting area
2. Formality of the setting
3. Appropriateness of the time for the meeting
4. Careful selection of those who should attend

➟ Role; the specific tactic in deciding on the role, will depend on the diagnosis of the situation.
➟ Eg; initiating the agenda, acting as a referee, giving feedback.
➟ Third party interventions must develop considerable skills at diagnoses, intervention and follow-up.

A. An Episodic Model of Conflicting:

➟ Interpersonal conflict often occurs in cyclical stages known as episodes.

B. Facilitating the Conflict Resolution Process:

Team Building:

➟ Helps people enhance their interpersonal and problem-solving skills.
➟ It is an effective approach to improving team work and task accomplishment.
➟ It can help;

1. Problem solving group make maximum use of members' resources and contributions.
2. Members develop high level of motivation to implement group decisions.
3. Group overcomes problems like apathy and general lack of member interest, loss of productivity.
4. In the development of group goals, and norms that support high productivity and quality of work life.​

1. Interventions relevant to individual behavior:

➟ People come into groups with different needs for achievement, inclusion, etc. Their needs are supported by the team's process and structure, or they are discouraged.
➟ Diagnostic instruments, interviews and feedback can help members better understand style and motivation of group members.
➟ Development activities are coaching, 360 degree feedback and third party interventions.​

2. Interventions relevant to group behavior:

➟ Most common focus of team-building activities is behavior related to task performance and group process.
➟ Diagnostic activities involve gathering information through questionnaires and interviews.
➟ Developmental activities, aimed to improve group process and functioning, are role clarification, mission and goal development.​

3. Intervention affecting the group's integration (relationship) with the rest of the organization:

➟ As a team gains better understand of itself, it becomes better able to diagnose itself and its own problems, and it also focuses on its role in the organization.
➟ Diagnostic activities involve surveys and interviews, to see how the group relates to its organizational context.
➟ Developmental activities involve actions that improve or modify the groups contribution to the organization, how it acquires resources or alters its output in terms of cost, quality and quantity.[/INDENT]

The Manager's Role in Team Building:

➟ Ultimately, the manager is responsible for team functioning.
➟ To develop a work group that can regularly analyze and diagnose its own effectiveness and take appropriate action​

​

​

 

[Detective L]

Possible questions for test;

Chapter 2;

Organisational diagnoses point the organization toward a set of appropriate intervention activities that will improve organizational effectiveness. Elaborate on what is ‘organisational diagnoses’. (15)

Spoiler

➟ It happens before intervention.
➟ Diagnosis is aligned with the predominant values underlying OD, with an emphasis on the joint and collaborative nature of the diagnostic process.
➟ Purpose of diagnosis is to uncover the true causes of the problem.

➟ Diagnosis points the organization and the OD practitioner toward a set of appropriate intervention activities, that will improve organizational effectiveness. It is thus, the process of understanding how the organization is currently functioning and provides the information necessary to design change interventions.
➟OD practitioners and organization members jointly determine issues to focus on and how to work together to develop action steps from the diagnoses.

➟ Additionally, the organization and OD practitioner may be looking for ways to enhance the organizations existing functioning, to discover areas of future development.

Conceptual frameworks that people use to understand organisations are referred to as ‘diagnostic models’. Specify on the need for diagnostic models. (5)

Spoiler

➟ A framework is needed to ensure all important areas of concern are addressed.
➟ To work without a model causes two issues;

1. The client cannot work with the OD practitioner or agree that the model makes sense.

2. The practitioner takes the risk that some important category of data is not collected, that may be an important cause of the problem or issue.

The Open Systems Theory recognizes that organisations exist in the context of a larger environment that affects how the organization performs and in turn is affected by how the organization interacts with it. Outline the key issues involved in Open Systems Theory including the five key systems properties: inputs, transformations, and outputs; boundaries; feedback; and alignment. (30)

Spoiler

Organizations as open-systems;

➟The systems theory is a set of concepts and relationships describing the behaviors and properties of things called systems - organizations, groups and people.
➟ Systems are viewed as unitary wholes composed of parts or subsystems, the system servers to integrate the parts into a functioning unit.

➟eg: Organization systems are composed into departments, like sales, operations and finance.

➟ The organization serves to coordinate behaviors of its departments so that they function together in service of a goal or strategy.
➟ The Open Systems Model suggests that organizations operate within an external environment, takes specific inputs (information, energy) from the environment and transforms those inputs using social and technical power.

➟ The outputs (finished goods, services, ideas) of the transformation process are returned to the environment and can be used as feedback to the organizations' functioning.
➟ This model also suggests that organizations and their sub-systems - departments, groups and individuals - share a number of common features that explain how they are organized and function.

A. Environments:

➟ Open systems exchange information and resources with their environments.
➟ Opens systems such as organizations and people, cannot completely control their behavior and are in part, influenced by external forces like;

1. Availability of labor and human capital
2. Raw materials
3. Customer demands
4. Competition

B. Inputs, Transformation and Outputs:

1. Inputs;

➟ Consists of human or other resources, like information or raw materials, coming into the system, acquired from the external environment.
➟ Eg; raw materials from supplier.

2. Transformation;

➟ Are the processes of converting inputs into outputs.
➟ An operations function in an organization composed of both social and technological components, generally carries out transformation.
➟ Social component consists of people and their work relationship, and technological component consists of tools, techniques and methods of production.

3. Outputs;

➟ Are the results of what has been transformed by the system and sent to the environment.
➟ Thus, inputs that have been transformed represent outputs ready to leave the system.

C. Boundaries:

➟ The idea of boundaries help us distinguish between systems and environments.
➟ Boundaries - the borders or the limits of the system that are easily seen in many biological and mechanical systems.
➟ However, defining the boundaries of social systems is difficult because there is continuous inflow and outflow through them.

D. Feedback:

➟ Is information regarding the actual performance or the output results of the system. However, only information used to control the future functioning of the system, is considered feedback.
➟ Feedback can be used to maintain the system in a steady state, or to help the organization adapt to changing circumstances.

E. Alignment:

➟ A system's overall effectiveness is partly determined by the extent to which the different subsystems are aligned with each other.
➟ This alignment or fit concerns the relationship between the organization and its environment, between inputs and transformations, between transformations and outputs, and among the systems of the transformation process.
➟ Alignment refers to a characteristic of the relationship between two or more parts. It represents the extent to which the features, operations and characteristics of one system support the effectiveness of another system. That is, the parts of an organization need to mesh for it to be effective.

In order to understand how a total organization functions, it is necessary to examine particular inputs, design components, and the alignment of the two sets of dimensions. Discuss the relationship between the general environment the organization faces and how design components such as technology, structure, management processes (measurement systems), and human resource systems must be adapted.

Chapter 2-3:

Systems theory is a set of concepts and relationships describing the properties and behaviours of things called systems – organisations, groups and individual level components, for example. Discuss the similarities and differences among the organization, group and individual levels in open systems theory.



Group effectiveness may include two dimensions, namely performance and quality of work life. Elaborate on team effectiveness as an output at the group level.

Spoiler

Outputs include:

➟ Group effectiveness has 2 dimensions;

a) Performance;

➟ Measured in terms of group's ability to control or reduce costs, or improve quality.

b) Quality of Work Life;

➟ Concerns work satisfaction, team cohesion and organizational commitment.

Group level diagnoses involves inputs and design components. Describe how the absence of any of these components can impact outputs.

Spoiler

1. Inputs:

➟ Organization design comprised of;

a) Technology; can determine the characteristics of group tasks.

b) Structure; can specify the level of coordination required among groups.

c) Human Resource and Reward System; play important role in determining team functioning.

2. Design Components:

1. Goal Clarity:

➟ Involves how well the group understands its objectives.
➟ Should be clear and understood by all.

2. Task Structure:

➟ Has to do with how the group's work is designed.
➟ Carries along two dimensions;

a) Coordination of members' effort;

➟ Degree to which group tasks are structured to promote effective interaction among group members.

b) Regulation of their task behaviors;

➟ Degree to which members can control their own task behaviors and be relatively free from external controls.

3. Group Composition:

➟ Concerns the membership of the group.

4. Team Functioning:

➟ The underlying basis of group life.
➟ The quality of relationships in work groups can affect task performance.

5. Performance Norms:

➟ Member beliefs about how the group should perform its task.
➟ Derived from interactions among members and serve as guides to group behavior.

The group- and individual-level diagnostics models are a replication of the organizational diagnostic model. Compare and contrast the ‘alignment’ for group and individual inputs and job design dimensions.

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Chapter 4:

In most cases of planned change, Industrial Psychologists play an active role in gathering data from organization members for diagnostic purposes. Elucidate the importance of diagnostic relationships in the OD process.

Spoiler

➟ Simply a more specific contracting process.
➟ Importance of proper data collection and joint diagnosis, prior to feedback.
➟ These key elements need to be understood and utilized to;

1) Rally energy for change
2) Obtain valid information
3) Develop a collaborative relationship

➟ The diagnostic relationship is meant to clarify expectations and to specify the conditions of the relationship.
➟ Answers to the following questions provide the substance of the diagnostic construct;

Who am I? ➟ Introducing the OD practitioner to the organization.
Why am I here? ➟ Defining the goals of the diagnoses and data gathering activities.
Who do I work for? ➟ Who hired the consultant (manager, etc).
What do I want from you? ➟ How much time and effort people will need to give to provide data.
How will I protect your confidentiality? ➟ Assuring employees that their data is safe, etc.
Who will have access to your data? ➟ Providing respondents with their own results.
What's in it for you? ➟ Benefits of diagnoses.
Can I be trusted? ➟ Concerns the trust established between the consultant and those providing data.

The four major techniques for gathering diagnostic data are questionnaires, interviews, observations and unobtrusive measures. Discuss any two of these techniques in detail.

Spoiler

1. Questionnaires:

Advantages;

➟ Responses can be quantified and summarized.
➟ Large samples and large quantities of data.
➟ Relatively inexpensive.

Disadvantages;

➟ Little opportunity for empathy with subjects.
➟ Predetermined questions.
➟ Over-interpretation of data possible.
➟ Response biases possible.

2. Interviews:

Advantages;

➟ Adaptive, allows for some customization.
➟ Source of rich data.
➟ Empathetic
➟ Process builds rapport with subjects.

Disadvantages;

➟ Relatively expensive.
➟ Bias in interviewer responses
➟ Coding and interpretation can be difficult
➟ Self-report bias possible

Data analysis techniques fall into two broad categories. Explain both the quantitative and qualitative techniques used for analyzing data.

Spoiler

1. Qualitative Techniques (easier to use because they do not rely on numerical data).

2. Quantitative Techniques (provide more accurate readings)

The four major techniques for gathering diagnostic data are questionnaires, interviews, observations and unobtrusive measures. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the various methods of data collection

Spoiler

1. Questionnaires:

Advantages;

➟ Responses can be quantified and summarized.
➟ Large samples and large quantities of data.
➟ Relatively inexpensive.

Disadvantages;

➟ Little opportunity for empathy with subjects.
➟ Predetermined questions.
➟ Over-interpretation of data possible.
➟ Response biases possible.

2. Interviews:

Advantages;

➟ Adaptive, allows for some customization.
➟ Source of rich data.
➟ Empathetic
➟ Process builds rapport with subjects.

Disadvantages;

➟ Relatively expensive.
➟ Bias in interviewer responses
➟ Coding and interpretation can be difficult
➟ Self-report bias possible

3. Observations:

Advantages;

➟ Collect data on actual behavior, rather than reports of behavior.
➟ Real time, not retrospective.
➟ Adaptive.

Disadvantages;

➟ Coding and interpretation difficulties
➟ Sampling inconsistencies
➟ Observer bias and questionable reliability
➟ Adaptive

4. Unobtrusive Measures;

Advantages;

➟ Non-reactive, no response bias
➟ High face validity
➟ Easily quantified

Disadvantages;

➟ Access and retrieval difficulties
➟ Validity concerns
➟ Coding and interpretation difficulties

Perhaps the most important step in the diagnostic process is feeding back diagnostic information to the client organisation. Signify the importance of data feedback in the OD process

Spoiler

A. Relevant ➟ Include managers and employees in initial data collection and make information meaningful.
B. Understandable ➟ Make data understandable.
C. Descriptive ➟ Link data to real organizational behaviors (illustrations and examples).
D. Verifiable ➟ Organization members should verify whether feedback data accurately represents organizational events and attitudes.
E. Limited ➟ Limit feedback data to what employees can realistically process at the time.
F. Timely ➟ Data should be fed as quickly as possible.
G. Impactful ➟ Limit feedback to problems that organization members can do something about.
H. Comparative ➟ Provide organizations members an idea as to how their group fits into a broader context.
I. Unfinalized ➟ Use data as starting point for more in-depth discussions of organized issues.

Several characteristics of effective feedback data have been described in the literature. Explain the desired characteristics of feedback content.

Spoiler

1. Motivation to work with data;

➟ People need to feel that working with feedback data will have beneficial outcomes, feel free to raise issues and identify concerns during feedback sessions.

2. Structure for the meeting;

➟ Need structure, or may degenerate into aimless discussions, an agenda, an outline, and discussion leader, can provide the necessary direction.

3. Appropriate attendance;

➟ People who have common problems and can benefit from working together should be included in feedback meeting.

4. Appropriate power;

➟ If the group has no power to make changes, the feedback meeting will become an empty exercise rather than a problem solving session.

5. Process help;

➟ OD practitioner with group process skills can help members stay focused on the subject and improve feedback discussions, problem-solving and ownership.

Survey feedback is a process of collecting and feeding back data from an organization or department through the use of a question or survey. Describe the major diagnostic activities of the Industrial psychologist in survey feedback.

Spoiler

1. What are the steps?

a) Members of the organization are involved in the preliminary planning of the survey.

b) Survey instrument administered to all members of organization.

c) OD consultant usually analyses survey data, tabulates the results, suggests approaches to diagnose and train client members to lead the feedback process.

d) Data feedback usually begins at top of any organization and cascades down to groups, reporting to managers at successfully lower levels.

e) Feedback meetings provide opportunity to work with data.

Survey feedback is a process of collecting and feeding back data from an organization or department through the use of a question or survey. Discuss the usefulness and limitations of survey feedback.

Spoiler

Limitations of Survey Feedback:

➟ Ambiguity of purposes
➟ Distrust in organization can render feedback ineffective.
➟ Unacceptable topics
➟ Organizational Disturbances

 

[Detective L]

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Techniques
12 techniques
1. ±(Dorakoniumu: ) - Draconium Release: Seath's Madness ± (physical)
Type: Offensive
Rank: A rank
Range: Short - Mid range
Chakra: 30
Damage: 60
Description: Named after the betrayer, Seath the Scaleless, this technique forms a rather unique usage of Draconium. Crystal ideas.

2. ± (Dorakoniumu: ) - Draconium Release: Solaire's Seach ± (spiritual)
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3. ± (Dorakoniumu: ) - Draconium Release: Ornstein's Quest ± (physical)
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4. ± (Dorakoniumu: ) - Draconium Release: Smough's Judgement ± (physical)
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5. ± (Dorakoniumu: ) - Draconium Release: The Reign of Queelag ± (spiritual)
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6. ± (Dorakoniumu: ) - Draconium Release: Artorias' Descent to Darkness ± (physical)
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7. ± (Dorakoniumu: ) - Draconium Release: Grace of the Moonlight Butterfly ± (spiritual)
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8. ± (Dorakoniumu: ) - Draconium Release: Corruption of Manus ± (spiritual)
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9. ± (Dorakoniumu: ) - Draconium Release: Nito's Plague ± (spiritual)
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10. ± (Dorakoniumu: ) - Draconium Release: Dance of the Four Kings ± (physical)
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11. ± (Dorakoniumu: ) - Draconium Release: Sif's Protection ± (spiritual)
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12. ± (Dorakoniumuton: Gū~in no buki) - Draconium Release: Gwyn's Armory ± (physical)
Type: Offense/Defense/Supplementary
Rank: D - S rank
Range: Short - Long range
Chakra: 10 - 40
Damage: 20 - 80
Description: Named after the Lord of Sunlight, Gwyn's Armory is the base technique of Draconium where the user will be able to manipulate it in its stable and static form. The stable energy is manifested at will and limited only by imagination. This allows the user to form constructs of Draconium either from the air, the ground or their bodies. Due to its stability and inherent properties, the user is able to form armors of Draconium onto themselves or their creations, simple energy swords and weapons of Draconium stable enough to be used as normal weapons as well as static platforms and intricate structures to transverse on. The Draconium carries no sound nor heat upon creation and carries the color the user wills it to over its black interior. Upon interaction with a foreign chakra, the Draconium sizzles and vibrates, seeking the nearest source. This causes the stable energy to become erratic and cause shocking and burning damage upon impact with an opponent. The Draconium is capable of exploding when slamming into objects of harder density like Earth or Kaguya bones, for example. Usages below B rank require no hand seals, while those at B rank require one, at A rank two and at S rank, three hand seals. This lasts up to three turns per use and the A rank usages can only be used 4 times and the S rank usages only three times, not in consecutive turns.
Revamping:
(Ekishousan'en no Jutsu ) - Liquid Nitrogen Technique

Spoiler

Rank: S
Type: Offenive , Supplementary
Range: Short - Long
Chakra cost: 30 (-5 per turn for sustaining)
Damage points: 60
Description: The user is capable of drawing up liquid nitrogen to manipulate it to the users will and can mold it to create and use for multiple purposes.The liquid nitrogen can be formed from the air, from the users' body as well as from the ground up. This allows the user to form projectiles, weapons, waves of Liquid Nitrogen. Due to its liquid nature, the Liquid Nitrogen remains versatile enough to form constructs like walls and waves, as well as bend them to the users' liking, akin to Water usage. Through keeping a single hand seal, the user is able to maintain the shape and form of the Liquid Nitrogen for extended periods of time at a chakra cost of -5 per turn. Upon impact, the Liquid Nitrogen would cause both freezing damage as well as profuse burning on the opponent's skin. The D to B rank usage has no limits, while A rank usage can be used 4 times per fight with a turn cool down in between and the S rank usage can be used 3 times, with a two turn cool down period in between.

(Ekishousan’en: Ishuu no Hitotaba Taka) – Liquid Nitrogen Release: Swarm of 100 Hawks

Spoiler

Rank: A
Type: Attack
Range: Short – Long
Chakra cost: 30
Damage points: 60
Description: The user will manipulate their chakra and focus their Liquid Nitrogen chakra into the air to create 100 small animals or entities of liquid nitrogen. These animals gain a solidity and are able to be manipulated passively as they aim to impact individuals, or structures. Much akin to Kamikaze, these creatures will swoop down upon an area to impact it, causing Liquid Nitrogen to spread onto the surface and quickly freeze it, as it does so. It can also cause explosions due to the speed at which the Liquid Nitrogen slams into the target. This can be used 4 times per fight with a two turn cool down in between. After this, the user can not use S rank and above Liquid Nitrogen techniques for a single turn.

 

[Detective L]

Oop

 

[Detective L]

Lightning Uchiha Biography

Spoiler

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B A S I C § I N F O R M A T I O N ​

N A M E N I C K N A M E G E N D E R C L A N A G E Lightning N/A Female Uchiha 20 something​ You must be registered for see images L O O K S​ P E R S O N A L I T Y​ Lightning is a fairly tall individual standing at 5ft 12 with a long flowing pink coloured hair that extends all the way down to her lower back. She has a fair complexion and considered young and beautiful looking, one of the finest that the clan has ever produced. She has a graceful appearance within her demeaner. She is adorn in a white and blue patterned kimmono and wears ontop the traditional Uchiha battle armour that is also a dark blue much like the one seen by Tobirama. Her hands are covered with light blue gloves and a sapphire signet ring upon her dominant hands index finger. she wears a simple shinobi style footwear along with light blue trousers. ​ ​ Lightning is a very calm cool and collected individual, who never rouses to any taunts from opponents or poor situations. She has shown she is highly intelligent showing great analytical abilities when facing opponents and understanding ancient scriptures and texts from different civilisations. She exerts a gentle presence when amongst comrades and clan members showing she is more than capable of being humble and approachable, but when in a confrontation she exerts a trememndously powerful precense making even the most skilled combatants to become uneasy. She has also been shown to savior the enjoyment of combat, showing great interest in any opponent that offers up a good fight and as such will seek to find opponents who will provide her with entertainment and to further her own personal ability..​ ​ ​ You must be registered for see images You must be registered for see images V I L L A G E § I N F O R M A T I O N V I L L A G E § O F § B I R T H You must be registered for see images V I L L A G E § O F § A L L I A N C E You must be registered for see images You must be registered for see images R A N K / C H A K R A § I N F O R M A T I O N ​ N I N J A § R A N K Sage of Mind, Body and Soul S P E C I A L I T Y E L E M E N T S Water Earth Lightning Wind Fire Liquid Nitrogen Gel Erbium Shining Water O TH E R § J U T S U Ninjutsu Genjutsu Taijutsu Kenjutsu Sharingan Genjutsu Mangekyo Sharingan NB Taijutsu Fuuinjutsu Eight Inner Gates Yin Release Yang Release Yin/Yang Release Giant Hawks Dragons - Liquid Nitrogen Dragon You must be registered for see images B A C K G R O U N D § I N F O R M A T I O N ​ You must be registered for see images . You must be registered for see images O T H E R You must be registered for see images ​ . Theme Song and Background Music ​ ​ ​ Spoiler You must be registered for see images B A T T L E S W O N N/A L O S T N/A You must be registered for see images ​

 

[Detective L]

Oop