Is a collection of people who work together to achieve a wide variety of goals (like earning money, achieving levels of power and prestige, enjoying a satisfying work experience). It also tries to accomplish goals like providing innovative goods and services and making a profit.
It is in essence, a social system in which the behavior of people is influenced by arrangements within the organization, in relation to the external environment.
It is a scientific field used/dedicated to understanding, explaining and appreciating the many forces that affect behavior in organizations.
And to making correct decisions about how to motivate and coordinate people and other resources to achieve organizational goals.
It encourages a holistic view of the organization with the aim of enhancing systems, structures and behaviors to ensure efficiency and effectiveness.
The Levels of Analysis
This field of OB requires an analysis of:
1. The Behavior of People (individuals, groups and teams).
2. The Process of Management (best management practices influencing behaviors)
3. The Organizational Context in which the process of management takes place (eg: organizational structure, culture and leadership philosophy).
4. Interaction with the External Environment (responding to changes)
The Interrelated Components of Organizational Behavior:
1. The Individual:
Is a central figure of Organizational Behavior, and the focus of any behavioral situation. If needs of individuals, and demands of the organization can be integrated, the individual can become engaged, and excel. Managers should provide a working environment that allows fulfillment of individual needs and achievement of organizational goals.
2. The group, or team:
Are dynamic and exist according to organizational and social needs. People in groups develop their own hierarchies, and group pressure exerts major influence on behavior and performance of individual group members. Managers cannot influence or control work behavior, without knowledge of group structures and behavior.
3. The Organization:
The structure of a formal organization depends on the interaction of individuals and groups. The relationship among individuals, between individuals and groups, and among groups, provide order and systems that directs the efforts of the organization towards the achievement of its goals.
Organization design and structure influence patterns of management, which have an impact on the behavior of people within the organization.
4. The environment:
Every organization is part of an external environment. Things like technology, economy, social, cultural and political events. It needs to adapt to external change.
All these factors are intertwined and complex. They require a holistic view, to ensure optimal functioning.
The Interdisciplinary Nature of Organizational Behavior:
Assumptions must be scientifically tested before they are considered to be the truth.
A working knowledge of current OB theories, research and practice can help a person to develop an integrated awareness of why members of organizations think and act they way they do.
To understand an organization, its important to study the overt (visible) aspects as it to study the covert (invisible) aspects.
Positive Organizational Scholarship and Positive Organizational Behavior:
POS is the study of positive organization behavior like happiness, meaningfulness, joy and optimism.
The assumption of POS is that Psychology, have too long focused on the Psychopathology or illness (the wrong that had to be corrected), and that scientific inquiry also had to cover the Positive aspects and abundance.
POS and POB therefore focus on the study of positive work environment and their influence on excellence and extraordinary performance. This is rooted in the concept of Positive Psychology.
One area of research in POB is Authentic Leadership.
An Authentic Leader is an individual in a leadership position who is genuine, trustworthy, reliable and believable. An authentic leader leads from the heart.
Organizational Design and Structure:
Organization design shapes behavior in the organization.
The goals of Organizational Design are:
To coordinate the efforts of interdependent groups in the organization towards the achievement of organizational goals.
To ensure that information is distributed to the right places in the organization, to enable effective decision-making.
The organizational design provides a formal framework in which jobs, tasks, functions and relationships among people and departments are organized.
The structure affects the way power is distributed, decisions are made, information is disseminated and the ability of employees to respond to the needs of both internal and external outcomes.
Organizational design can be informed by the environment, core technology, organizational size or strategic choice by senior managers.
The Contingency Theory approach suggests that organizations tend to be more effective when they are structured to meet the demands of the situation.
This requires that the degree of environmental uncertainty should first be assessed before various organizational design configurations are used to achieve an effective organization-environment fit.
Many organizations embark on the process called restructuring or rationalization.
The aim, to rethink the logic of current organizations structure and to create an organizational structure that will enable the organization to respond more speedily to environmental changes.
Organizations that are able to adapt, are characterized by flatter organizational structures networking, use of teams as basic building blocks of the organization and a greater focus on customer needs and expectations.
IT (Information Technology) has had a big impact on organizational design. The "new" organization is imagined as an enmeshed IT network of people, structures and processes.
Multiple layers of middle management are being replaced by horizontal, process oriented forms in which empowered workers make decisions.
Contact with customers and suppliers is more frequent and responsive and performance appraisal focuses directly on work outcomes.
Organic Structures:
Two approaches to management exist:
1. Mechanistic Organization:
Rely on a lack of change in both the external and the work environments.
Allow for a high degree of specialization but they impose a lot of rules, narrowly defines tasks and communicate directly top down.
Traditional organizations are more mechanistic.
2. Organic Organization:
Are flexible networks of multi-talented individuals who perform a variety of tasks.
It is the opposite of bureaucracy.
They are flexible and changed-oriented, and they foster creativity.
The introduction of many dot-com companies has changed the organizational landscape.
They rely on an electronic commerce product and venture capital to support them.
Although dot-coms may adopt a more formal structure and hierarchy as they grow, in order to respond to the rapidly changing environment, they tend to reign organic structures that allow them to be flexible and adaptable.
Matrix Structures:
Many companies have turned to a matrix design to address the limitations of mechanistic or bureaucratic structures.
In general, the matrix form helps create a culture that is receptive to organizational improvement efforts and customer needs.
The matrix structure simultaneously groups people in 2 ways:
1. By the function of the group of which they are members.
2. By product/project team on which they are working.
The employees who are members of the product/project team, report to two managers:
1. Functional Manager
2. Product/Project Manager
Disadvantages of Matrix Structure:
It is more complex than simple bureaucracy and organic, and has potential to cause conflict among superiors.
It is dependent on performance of programme managers. The structure alone does not enhance performance.
Significantly dependent on IT.
High levels of work stress caused by demands of a dual system of reporting relationships.
However, members of product teams in matrix structures are generally highly qualified and skilled, and it provides a work setting in which employees are given freedom, and autonomy to take responsibility for their work activities.
The matrix structures encourages work behaviors that are concerned with quality and innovation.
Virtual Organizations:
A temporary cooperative network of independent suppliers, customers and competitors linked by computer technology.
Although "virtual", possess the characteristics of a "real" organization. They have definable characteristics like;
1. Technology - partnerships based on electronic contracts.
2. Excellence - each partner brings its best contribution to the competition.
3. Opportunism - partnerships are less permanent, less formal and more opportunistic.
4. Trust - members of virtual organizations must trust each other to achieve goals.
5. Collaboration - it is a collaboration between various entities to achieve a common objective, (like the supply chain)
6. No borders - traditional company borders are redefined. Cooperation among competitors, suppliers, and customers makes it difficult to determine borders.
Network Organization:
Lasting relationship between two or more organizations.
Network design is effective in creating alliances of flexible partnerships like, customers, suppliers and competitors.
There are 3 types of network organizations:
1. Internal Network; number of business units in a company.
2. Stable Network; a more permanent form of cooperation.
3. Dynamic Network; highly flexible network like virtual organization.
Network organizational design is intended to create successful internal and external relationships by following six I's:
1. Importance - of relationship is stressed.
2. Investment - in the form of financial resources, management attention and sponsorship.
3. Interdependence - of participants help maintain the balance of power.
4. Integration - of participants takes place in order to maintain essential points of contact and communication.
5. Information - is disseminated to each partner.
6. Institutionalization - bolsters a framework of supporting mechanisms from legal requirements to shared values.
The Shamrock Organization:
Conceived by Charles Hundy, and consists of different parts:
1. The Professional Core:
Comprises of qualified professionals, technicians and managers essential to the existence and effective performance of the organization.
They are critical to the survival of the organization, possess the ability to keep it afloat and expensive to retain.
Tendency to keep them at low number.
2. The Contractual Fringe:
Made up of people or groups outside the organization who provide specialist services, in the form of non-essential work that can be done by somebody else.
They are paid for results, not time, and in fees, not wages.
It undertakes boring and repetitive work and is not critical to survival of the organization.
3. The Flexible Labor Force:
Includes all part-time and temporary works who are used as flexible resources, as changing work situations demand.
Their commitment will be to a job or project, rather than to a career or organization.
Managing OB in a complex environment: The role of the 21st Century Manager.
Managers cannot afford to have narrow perspectives of their jobs, instead, they need to understand and support the organizational vision, strategy and business model, understand all business functions and approach their in a professional manner.
In essence, management is about people and about coordinating the efforts of people towards attaining organizational goals.
For most employees, their direct manager is the "face" of the organization, and therefore, influences their perceptions, attitudes and commitment.
Successful managers must be able to create new visions for the organization, and sell new directions of work to the employees.
Effective managers are team players, who function in a global marketplace where businesses deal within and across internal boundaries.
The 21st century manager must question old assumptions how people in different geographical locations work together, and creatively adapt to new circumstances.
Informed managers are aware that their organizations have to contend with external forces and changes like the acceleration of technology and speed of change, persistence of competing interests, and shifts in social behaviors.
Chaos describes the circumstances under which today's managers must perform.
The Multiple Roles of Managers:
1. Interpersonal Roles:
Figure-head of the team, unit and organization.
Leader of team members.
Liason with lateral contact, inside and outside the team and organization.
2. Informational Roles:
Monitor, collector and assimilator of information.
Disturbance handler, restoring functionality and performance, problem solver.
Resource allocator.
Negotiator in interpersonal and group relationships.
The profile of the 20th century workplace is undergoing immense and permanent changes, greater speed, efficiency and flexibility are demanded of organizations, teams have become building blocks, participative management and empowerment are keys to the game.
Customer-centered leaders are essential.
To be a high performer, managers need to have 3 focus areas:
1. Self awareness, or inner focus; which includes monitoring one's own thinking and feeling, emotional self-control, resilience and staying focused.
2. Empathy or other focus; which involves the ability to influence others, fostering and persuading collaboration and teamwork.
3. Systems awareness or outer focus; the ability to explore the broader environment and seek an understanding of how the various parts of the organization interrelate and also how the organization is influenced by the macro socio, economic, political, environmental and technological system. This focus helps the manager to develop "smart strategies".
Challenges of OB:
1. Managing in the global environment:
Due to the global environment, that franchises or organizations find themselves in, one comes into contact with many differences.
Managers should understand the differences work ethics between cultures and borders of their home country and continent.
Another challenge is virtual teams, linked only through technology and difficult to create cohesion, trust and receive relevant feedback from all parties.
2. Adapting to, and Thriving on change and discontinuity:
Globalization, technology and market changes have contributed to a work climate best best described as "temporary". Seen with flexible jobs and teams, contract work, changing job design, constantly changing products and services and short-term coalitions between organizations.
Organizations are also in a state of flux, they outsource, downsize, subcontract, reengineer, and introduce new technology.
Thus, managers and employees must learn to cope with this temporariness and change. They need to be flexible, innovative, creative, adaptive and resilient.
3. Achieving excellence through the management of people:
High performance organizations realize that it is people who mainly determine the organizations capacity to perform and it makes business sense to invest in the development of employees.
Human capital management is viewed as the process of acquiring, developing, deploying and retaining the collective knowledge, skills and abilities of employees by utilizing systems and processes that integrate or match employee talent with overall business goals.
The view of human capital management, is based on 2 things:
1. People are assets whose values can be enhanced through investment.
2. An organizations' human capital policies should be aligned with their mission, vision, core values, goals, objectives and strategies.
Effectiveness relates to the ability to satisfy customer needs, while efficiency implies doing it in the most cost and time efficient way.
4. Creating a knowledge based organization:
Knowledge management is the gathering and structuring of raw data in a useful and timely manner, which is then distributed to relevant users with minimum of delay, at a minimum cost.
Thus, knowledge on customer needs and experience gained over time, is extremely valuable in adapting to challenges of tomorrow.
An opportunity has to be created for everyone to share and utilize this knowledge. This is where IT comes in; information can be distributed through corporate intranets, extranets, the internet, video conferences, collaborative computing, voicemail or email.
Problem arises with mobility of knowledge works (gold collar employees), easily poached. To prevent this, they must be given challenging work, autonomy, advanced technology and advancement opportunities. Can also be used as mentors.
5. Managing a Diverse workforce as a competitive advantage:
Workforce diversity refers to the heterogenous nature of people in the workplace, with regards to gender, race, ethnicity and sexuality.
The challenge is to find a set of organizational values that is shared by everyone, and to capitalize on the different worldviews and perspectives, that diversity offers.
Another challenge is to create an environment where members authentically connect and build equal power bases.
Diversity is useful in decision-making and counter-acts group think.
May be difficult for diverse groups to work together, and can be overcome by managers taking diversity training programmes.
6. Adapting to constantly changing environments:
Technology refers to the knowledge, tools, techniques and processes used in organizations to create products and services which also include the use of machines and computers.
Constantly changing technology requires organizations to stay abreast of changes, to update and renew their systems and continuously train employees.
Can also be used as means of training delivery and enables employees to learn in their own time and at their own pace.
Allows for easy communication when in different locations.
Can create stress when people can't manage boundaries between work and home (reading work emails at home).
Relying too much on technology as a means of communication, might negatively affect relationships, face to face relationships are more authentic.
7. Creating a highly ethical organization:
Ethics implies doing what is right, and good. Ethical organizations develop a positive reputation, attract better employees and establish a stable customer base.
Understanding ourselves and others, is often a complex mental process. The SIFT (The Sensing, Inferring meaning, Formulating intent, Translating) model provides a simple explanation of this cognitive process, in which we often limit, filter, or misjudge inputs, which results in misunderstanding of people.
Perceptions:
Is a mental process by which individuals organize, interpret and understand sensory impressions from their environment.
Social perception (looking at people) is more complex than object perception, because;
1. Human qualities like intelligence, attitudes and feelings are not directly observable.
2. We know that people act purposefully and we try to identify their intentions and motives, by asking questions like, "Why is she so friendly?"
3. People have the ability to give a false impression of themselves, which causes us to make incorrect observations about them.
The complexity is increased because perceptions is influenced by a persons' culture and the meanings they give to verbal and non-verbal communications.
We tend to be very selective about the information we use to create impressions and to develop attributions of others.
Impression formation; is the process by which we form impressions of others, and act on them.
When we try to explain why people act in a specific way, we make an attribution.
Our impressions of others, and attributes we make, are based on our expectations, previous experiences and the way we group certain characteristics together and make assumptions about them, in other words, our cognitive processes.
Examples of social perceptual errors we often make;
1. Stereotyping:
Refers to the tendency to attribute certain characteristics to a group and then assume that every member belonging to that group, shares those characteristics.
Can be based on race, sexual orientation, gender, occupation, nationality or age.
Each case, there is the "good" and the "bad".
The majority of stereotypes are negative and tend to be self-perpetuating, develop out of a misunderstanding or ignore, or are simply wrong.
Positive side, they allow us to make some sense of what to expect in our interaction with others.
Stereotypes are linked to prejudice, discrimination and bias.
2. Prejudice:
Refers to the attitude, either negative or positive, held towards members of a particular group.
Its based exclusively on their membership to that group.
Develops out of social learning, and social categorization.
3. Discrimination:
Often based on prejudice, relates to either positive or negative action or behavior towards a particular person or group.
4. Bias:
Is a "one-sided" judgement, attitude or perspective which is made either consciously or unconsciously to describe a person or object.
Like discrimination, its influenced by prejudice.
Effects:
1. Primacy Effects; first impressions, good or bad, tend to override subsequent encounters.
2. Recency Effect; the most recent impressions stand out the most in our minds.
3. Halo Effect; tendency to base all our impressions on a single outstanding characteristic and the presence of this characteristic implies the presence of the associated ones.
4. Devil Horn's Effect; the opposite of Halo Effect, one negative characteristic overrides all.
5. Projection; tendency to project our own characteristic onto other people.
6. Contrast Effect; refers to the tendency to compare people.
7. Selective Perception; selective about what we perceive about others.
8. Schema; image we have in our mind regarding how others should act, and how they should act.
These perceptual errors have an impact on our social judgement. They make us act incorrectly, influence whether we'll dislike a person, etc.
Managers who perceive their employees as resourceful (Theory Y leaders) create opportunities for them to demonstrate their potential and achieve success.
Managers who perceive their employees in a negative light (Theory X leaders) treat them in a negative way, which reflects in poor performance of the employee.
Attribution:
Can be defined as the conclusions that people draw about the causes of events, others' behavior and their own behavior. Linked to self-perceptions, and how we interpret success and failure.
They make two assumptions;
1. That people will interpret their environment in a way to maintain a positive image.
2. That a persons' own perception or attribution for success or failure, will determine the amount of effort the person will expend on that activity in the future.
People make attributions because of a strong need to make sense of what they experience, and to maintain a positive self-image.
The reasons people give to explain their success or failure, can be analyzed in terms of these 3 characteristics;
1. Internal and External Attributions:
Internal, something within us, (personal effort, ability, intelligence).
External, situation or context, (luck, complexity of task, someone else).
These factors determine whether we make an internal or external attribution;
a) Distinctiveness
b) Consensus
c) Consistency
2. Stable and Unstable Causes:
People also make judgement with regard to the stability of the factors that influence their success or failure.
3. Controllable and Uncontrollable Causes:
Success or failure may be controllable (like conditions of service) or uncontrollable (like laws).
Errors in Attribution:
The attributions we make are only as correct as the information on which we base them. A process open to many biases;
1. Fundamental Attribution Error:
Tendency to overestimate the presence of internal factors, and overestimate the presence of external ones.
2. Defensive Attribution Error:
Tendency to blame other people for their own misfortune, so that we will feel protected from a similar fate.
3. Self-serving Bias:
Tendency to attribute our success to internal factors, and failures to external ones.
4. Self-handicapping:
Occurs when students or employees create obstacles that make good performance less likely, and thereby protect their sense of self-confidence.
Self-Image or Personality:
Determinants of Self-Image:
It is both inborn (hereditary) and shaped by context.
Don't rely solely on personality tests when making employment, promotion or training decisions in the workplace.
Use the services of a registered, licensed and reputable testing agent.
Insist on scientifically compliant personality tests.
Do not submit to the myth that only one personality type fits a specific position.
Appreciating Mental Diversity in the Workplace:
The different mental styles are;
1. The A Quadrant Style - is logical, analytical and fact based. Logical thinkers and problem solvers.
2. The B Quadrant Style - is detailed, organized, practical and realistic. Likes to plan, administer and control.
3. The C Quadrant Style - is people and team-oriented. Are communicative, spiritual, intuitive and interactive.
4. The D Quadrant Style - is creative, adventurous, entrepreneurial and risk-oriented. Is visionary and good at conceptualizing ideas.
Emotional Intelligence:
The ability to recognize, understand and manage our own emotions, and influence the emotions of others.
The components of EI are;
1. Self-Awareness - the ability to recognize, understand and monitor the mood, emotions and drives of self, and others. Allows one to react appropriately by separating feeling from actions.
2. Self-Regulation - ability to control disruptive impulses, moods and judgements. Fosters self-control and anger management.
3. Internal motivations - ability to channel emotions towards a goal not only directed to external rewards, but inner happiness.
4. Empathy - understanding how others feel, sensitivity towards others, and good listening skills.
5. Social Skills - involves effective conflict resolutions, negotiation, communication and leadership.
Attitudes:
Defined as evaluations people make concerning objects, people or events.
Attitudes influenced by values.
Values are principles or standards we adapt as behavioral guidelines for all situations.
Attitudes reflect our response to a specific situation, person or object.
Consists of 3 components;
1. Cognitive (the way we think)
2. Emotional (the way we feel)
3. Behavioral (the way we act)
Stable attitudes, closely linked to our values, does not easily change.
Attitudes related to work and organization:
1. Job Satisfaction - refers to a persons' general attitude towards their job.
2. Job Involvement - refers to the extent to which a person identifies psychologically with their job and considers their performance level as a reflection of their self-worth.
3. Organizational Commitment - degree to which a person identifies with a specific organization and its goals, and wishes to maintain membership of the organization.
4. Occupational Commitment - represents loyalty to profession rather than to a specific organization.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory:
Made by Leon Festinger in 1950s.
Aims to explain the relationship between attitudes and behavior.
Dissonance means, inconsistency, which manifests itself when a persons' behavior is not in line with their attitudes.
The degree to which they will attempt to create consistency, depends on;
1. Importance of variables.
2. Control that the individual believes they have over elements.
3. The rewards involved.
The greater the dissonance, the more likely the person will change their behavior.
Refers to the force within us that arouses, directs and sustains behavior.
Arousal - an energy that drives our behavior (desire to make a good impression on the new boss).
Direction of Behavior - about the choices you make between different behaviors to achieve your goal (choose between behaviors to impress boss, like working harder or staying later at work).
Sustaining Behavior - how long you are willing to persist in attempts to meet your goal (if you try and create a good impression after little effort, you cannot describe yourself as highly motivated).
Motivation also used to make sense of behavior of others, that we observe. Its inferred (we use behavior as a basis to understand underlying level of motivation).
Inferences can be wrong. The more information you have, the more accurate.
Effective Managers understand Motivation:
Need to understand their employees, and what motivates them.
Find out the needs and goals employees set for themselves.
Important because high motivation = high performance.
Highly motivated; exert greater effort, strive to produce at higher level, want to come to work, interested in helping and supporting and contribute more to the organization.
No one best way to motivate every individual, must understand that each individual is different.
Therefore, understand each persons' needs and goals.
Need = is a deficiency or something that the employee lacks and that is value to that particular employee, at that specific time.
Can be;
1. Physiological; the need for food.
2. Psychological; the need for self-esteem.
3. Social; the need for relationship with others.
When the need is present, individual will seek to fulfill that need.
Effective manager direct employees' work to enable them to fulfill their individual needs and contribute to achieving goals of the organization.
The motivation process is goal directed, the goal the employee seeks, arouses them to act in a certain way.
When there is a need, there is a trigger that desires to search for ways to help reduce the tension felt because of the deficiency.
A course of action is selected that the person believes will result in achievement of the goals, and persist.
Motivation Theories:
There are 2 types:
1. Content Theories - focus on what motivates an individual. What are the factors that produce, direct and sustain behavior? Concerned with determining specific needs of people.
2. Process Theories - attempt to describe and analyze how people are motivated, how behavior is aroused, directed and sustained. Factors are typically external to the person.
Basic Assumptions of Theories of Motivation:
Behavior has a starting point, a certain direction and a stopping point.
It is voluntary and under a person's direct control.
It has a specific purpose and direction, in other words, behavior is goal directed.
Managers who understand motivation theories will be able to arouse, direct and sustain behavior of their employees, far better than those who don't.
Human behavior is motivated.
Content Theories of Motivation:
1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory:
Categorized human needs into 5 basic groups;
1. Physiological needs; lowest order. Basic biological needs like the need for food, water, air.
2. Safety needs; activated once physiological needs have been substantially met. Include the need to feel protected from physical and emotional harm.
3. Social needs; activated after safety needs have been substantially met. Include the need to feel affection, friendship, acceptance and belonging.
4. Esteem needs; activated after social needs have been substantially met. Include the desire to feel an internal sense of self-respect, autonomy and achievement, and achieve status and recognition from others.
5. Self-Actualization needs; activated only after all needs have been substantially met. It refers to the need for self-fulfillment, the desire to be "all that one can be" and the desire for personal growth that extends beyond self-interest.
Very few people reach level of self-actualization.
Need for self-actualization can be met from different sources, like nature, helping those in need and religious experience.
Its a matter of self-expansion, growth and extending beyond oneself.
No need is fully satisfied, but if substantially satisfied, ceases to motivate a person, and next level of needs become dominant.
Lower levels come first, then you move up.
Lower order needs satisfied by external factors, like availability of water, food and shelter.
It is the most recognized theory of motivation, does not apply to all cultures.
2. Alderfer's ERG Theory:
Describes 3 groups of basic human needs;
1. Existence needs; a person's physical and material needs, equivalent to Maslow's physiological and safety needs.
2. Relatedness needs; same as Maslow's social needs.
3. Growth needs; individuals' desire to be productive, to be creative and to use their skills to the maximum.
Not activated in any particular order.
Alderfer describes the two forms of movement through the hierarchy;
1. Satisfaction-progression - same as described by Maslow.
2. Frustration-regression - describes what happens when a person's need is frustrated at a higher level. If satisfaction of next level need is frustrated, leads to movement down the hierarchy, and the person will attach greater importance to the lower level of need.
Two other concepts proposed by Alderfer, that are unique to the ERG theory;
1. Deficiency Cycle - if a person cannot satisfy a specific need, they will more strongly desire the satisfaction of those needs. If conditions are particularly tough, a person could become obsessed with satisfying their needs.
2. Enrichment Cycle - a person who successfully satisfies their needs, may begin to desire them even more. Motivates a person who wants to grow and develop, continually. The person will seek multiple environments to satisfy their needs.
ERG theory suggests that managers should actively manage the motivation of their employees.
The basic idea of ERG theory is that individuals shape their actions to satisfy unfulfilled needs - is consistent with other motivation theories.
ERG theory contributes to our ability to understand motivation at work, and to be more sensitive in our diagnosis of employees' behavior at work.
3. McClelland's Learned Needs Theory:
McClelland suggests that we are NOT born with special set of needs but that we learn particular needs from our culture, or society.
Theory considers only 3 high order needs;
1. Need for Achievement (nAch)
2. Need for Affiliation (nAff)
3. Need for Power (nPow)
If one of these needs is strong, it motivates a person to behave in a way that leads to the satisfaction of that need.
*People with high nAff;
Focus their behavior on establish and maintaining good relationships with other people, based on mutual respect and caring.
Emphasize friendships.
Try and work with others.
*People with high nPow;
Focus behavior on trying to influence others and exert influence over them.
Seek situations where they can influence others, through external rewards, to arouse, direct and sustain others' behaviors.
McClelland shows 2 ways in which people with high nPow can express their needs;
1. Personalized Power - involves the use of aggressive exploitative and dominating behavior over other people. They feel they must always win. Not suitable for leaders in modern organizations.
2. Socialized Power - focus on persuading and influencing other people. Necessary for the success of senior manager in any organization.
*People with high nAch;
Set challenging but attainable goals for themselves.
Take responsibility for their results.
Find their own ways to overcome challenges.
Take calculated risks in order to succeed, but are not gamblers.
Like autonomy and freedom.
Top performers in organizations.
*To get high nAch for employees;
Publicize their achievements, make them role models.
Provide meaningful feedback.
Grant autonomy.
Set challenging goals.
Introduce sense of reality into workplace, into things like promotions, training opportunities and teamwork.
McClelland believes a country's economic success is based on the level of need of achievement among members of its population.
4. Herzberg's Two Factor Theory:
Was interested in factors that made employees feel good about their jobs.
Known as Two-Factor Theory of Motivation (or Motivation-Hygiene Theory).
Saw that some factors made them feel good about their jobs, while different factors made them feel dissatisfied.
Those who felt good = ascribed it to internal factors.
Those who did not = ascribed it to external factors.
This finding implies that the opposite of "job satisfaction" is "no job satisfaction" and that the opposite of "job dissatisfaction" is "no job dissatisfaction".
This means that if you are dissatisfied, does not mean you are automatically satisfied instead.
Hygiene Factors - the factors that need to be in place if employees are to feel no dissatisfaction, but do not lead to job satisfaction.
Motivators; the factors that lead to job satisfaction and motivate employees.
Hygiene factors are external to the employee (extrinsic), like the quality of supervision, pay, and company policies.
Motivators are internal to the employee (intrinsic) like responsibility, achievement and opportunities for personal growth.
Theory suggests that managers do the following;
1. Eliminate factors in work environment that lead to job dissatisfaction. Hygiene factors must be maintained to prevent job dissatisfaction.
2. Emphasize the factors associated with work itself, like promotion opportunities for personal growth and recognition. Those are factors that people find intrinsically rewarding and lead to high levels of job satisfaction.
*Criticisms of the Theory:
Subjective opinions formed the basis of this theory.
Herzberg did not use an overall measure of job dissatisfaction.
2. Process Theories of Motivation:
1. Locke and Latham's Goal Setting Theory:
Goal - is a specific target that an individual is trying to achieve - it is what a person is attempting to accomplish.
Goals motivate, because people compare their current performance with performance required to achieve a goal.
If they believe they can achieve a goal, they will work harder.
If they have achieved it, they feel a sense of achievement and self-esteem.
Manager and employee should work together and set goals.
The following suggestions help with employee motivation;
1. Goals should be acceptable to the employee, for whom they are set (should be accepted as personal goals).
2. Goals should be challenging, not too easy or too challenging, employee should be able to achieve it.
3. Goals should be clear, and understandable, concise in nature.
4. Goals should be specific and easily quantified, so they know when they have achieved them.
5. Feedback on goal achievement is important, they should know how well they are doing.
Research shows that specific, challenging, and acceptable goals are very motivating.
Does not work for all job types.
Critics of Goal-Setting Theory;
1. That is works well for simple jobs, and less so for complex ones.
2. May encourage game-playing.
3. Can be negative, in the sense of controlling or closely monitoring employees. Can become an obsession to achieve a goal.
*Powerful tool if used correctly.
Self-Regulation; refers to people's ability to change their own behavior.
Based on goal setting, and feedback, helps increase chance that goals are achieved.
Theory emphasis on individual, setting of goals and standards that motivate behavior.
Employees monitor their own progress.
2. Skinner's Reinforcement Theory:
States that people engage in behaviors that have positive outcomes, and avoid behaviors that fail to produce them.
Not really a theory of motivation, ignores inner state of individual, concentrates solely on consequences of persons' behavior.
Not concerned about what arouses behavior, or how it is aroused.
Managers can use 4 approaches to affect employee behavior;
1. Positive Reinforcement; application of a positive event as a consequence of an employee behavior. Increases likelihood that behavior will be repeated. Serves to increase frequency or strength.
2. Negative Reinforcement; is the withdrawal or withholding of a negative event as a consequence of a particular behavior. Should not be confused with punishment.
3. Punishment; application of a negative event to decrease a particular behavior that is deemed undesirable. Usually in the form of sanction, or suspension. Does not normally change behavior. Rather, person develops negative feelings towards source of punishment.
4. Extinction; withdrawal of something that employee considers positive in order to decrease the frequency of an undesirable behavior. Like ignoring something, till it stops.
Shaping; combination of positive and negative reinforcement to direct an employees' behavior. Works in steps.
Critics believe;
1. It is unethical, and technically bribing employees to perform.
2. Employees may become too dependent on an external reinforcer, like pay.
3. Might not work well with complex jobs.
3. Adam's Equity Theory:
Only theory of motivation, that includes a social component.
It discusses the social comparisons that people make when they compare their inputs (effort exerted, time spent), with the output (pay, recognition) they receive.
Equity theory states that employees asses their inputs to a job against the outputs and then compares ratio (proportion) of these inputs and outputs with another employees' ratio of inputs and outputs.
If they are equal, there is equity.
If they are not, its not fair and there is a inequity.
Either under - or over-rewarded.
If state of inequity exist, employee is motivated to address it and restore equity.
Three categories of comparisons;
1. Any employee with a similar job.
2. The system within the organization where the employee works, including pay policies and efficiency of its administration.
3. Themselves, compare it to past jobs.
*Alternatively, employees seeking to restore equity will;
Distort their perceptions of their own or the other person's inputs and outcomes.
Try to convince the other person to change either their inputs and outcomes.
Change their own inputs and outputs.
Choose a different "other" for comparison.
Quit their job - leave the situation from which they are making the comparison.
Equity theory does not predict which will be selected.
People tend to compare themselves with those close to themselves.
Equity theory is important because it highlights the fact that people are concerned not only with the absolute number of rewards they receive, but also with the rewards they receive relative to the rewards that other people receive.
Suggests that managers should not overpay or underpay, but treat employees fairly.
4. Expectancy Theory:
Victor Vroom looks at how much effort one would exert to obtain a particular reward.
Depends on three relationships;
1. Expectancy Belief; whether or not you believe your effort will result in performance (being able to do what you are trying to do).
2. Instrumentality Belief; whether or not your performance will result in a reward given by the organization.
3. Valence; whether or not the reward will enable you to achieve your personal goals (what you want).
Valence = The value you associate with a particular organization.
Difficult for managers because difficult to ascertain the strength of each employee's different beliefs.
To motivate effectively, the manager needs to understand each of his or her employees well.
Expectancy theory has some important suggestions for managers;
1. Increase the expectancy that greater effort will lead to performance.
2. Rewards given by the organizations should be personally meaningful to employees (valent).
3. Rewards and performance should be clearly linked (instrumentality). Pay for performance, or specific the rewards for particular.
Motivation and Job Satisfaction:
Job satisfaction is the outcome of the expectancy model of motivation, and expectancy model therefore seems to imply that job satisfaction is equivalent to motivation.
Your sense of satisfaction with a job depends on the discrepancy between what you want from your job and what you perceive you get from it.
Motivation, Job Satisfaction and Performance:
Performance; is the extent to which an employee contributes to achieving the objectives of the organization.
There is no clear evidence that there is a strong relationship between job satisfaction and work performance, and may even be argued that high work performance leads to job satisfaction.
Job satisfaction may not be a strong predictor of work performance, but dissatisfaction at work may motivate specific behaviors;
1. Voice - a proactive and constructive response to dissatisfaction is to engage with the company to improve the situation. Offer suggestions and work through problems.
2. Loyalty - this is a passive approach because it involves waiting for the situation to improve while remaining loyal to the company and not seeking employment elsewhere.
3. Neglect - this is passive but destructive response to dissatisfaction in which employees become increasingly negative about their work, expand less effort at work and are absent more often. This does not mean that frequent absences from work imply dissatisfaction as there are many possible reasons for absence (poor health, work-family conflicts).
4. Exit - an active, but typically destructive behavior where employees leave the company - the source of the dissatisfaction. There is a moderately strong relationship between job dissatisfaction and intentions to leave a job.
Less-satisfied employees are more likely to quit a company than are satisfied employees.
Neither motivation nor job satisfaction fully explains the cause of productive behavior.
If you do not have the opportunity to demonstrate performance, it is unlikely that you will be productive.
Need an opportunity to show.
Motivation and job satisfaction are strongly related to willingness of employees to make an extra effort in their jobs.
OCB (Organization Citizenship Behavior); the idea of going the extra mile.
It has the following characteristics;
1. Behavior is voluntary and not specified in a job description.
2. The behavior is spontaneous and not pre-planned.
3. The behavior contributes to the effectiveness of the company, more than doing a personal favor.
4. Behavior is not likely to noticed by others, or reward, by the company.
Includes helping behavior, conscientousness, courtesy and cooperation with others and being a good sport when go wrong at work.
Motivation and Work Engagement:
Work Engagement; feel deeply involved, committed and enthusiastic about their work in a way that promotes productivity and benefits the organization that employs them.
1. Seen as the opposite of burnout,
2. Seen as positive, fulfilling state of mind, unrelated to burnout.
According to this approach, an employee with high work engagement would have a state of mind characterized by:
1. Vigor; implies the application of high levels of personal energy when engaging in work, and the display of strong mental resilience when encountering work challenges.
2. Dedication; refers to the personal willingness to invest effort in one's work with enthusiasm and persistence despite difficulties because engaging with work is a source of pride and inspiration.
3. Absorption; is when employees are both focused on, and happy doing a task at work, that they become so engrossed, absorbed and captivated that they lose their sense of time and find it difficult to "switch off" from their work activities.
Safety; refers to keeping employees free from hazard.
Health; refers to keeping employees free from illness or injury at work.
In today's world, employees experience more anxiety and stress as they are required to be resilient and show agility to deal with all these threats.
The Concept of Employee Well-Being:
Defined as the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social well-being of workers in all occupations.
The prevention among workers of departures from health caused by their working conditions.
Protection of workers in their employment situation, from risks resulting from factors adverse to health.
Includes elements of both physical and psychological health;
1. Physically, refers to the absence of illness and the presence of good health.
2. Psychologically, refers to the absence of psychopathology and presence of positive attitudes and resilience.
Mentally healthy person; someone who has good testing and positive energy, highly engaged and passionate, has capacity for empathy and self-awareness.
Wellness; refers to a state of optimal health in employees where they feel energetic, motivated and emotionally and mentally stimulated and able to foster good relationship and show commitment to high engagement with their work roles and organizational goals.
Paradigms in employee health and well-being:
1. Pathogenic Paradigm; concerned with origin illness. Focusing on diagnosing and treating problems at work. These programs focus on stressors and strains. Aims to remove the origins of illness to prevent recurrence and ensure wellness.
2. Salutogenic Paradigm; focuses on origins of health.
3. Fortigenic Paradigm; focuses on origins of strength.
The wellness inventions based on these paradigms are more positive and proactive in nature, and aim to enhance or promote optimal health and strength.
Focus on fostering coping resources, personal resilience, collaboration, training, adequate job resources and cover the full spectrum of interventions related to employee engagement.
Ensuring employee health and wellness:
Identify work-related stress hazards and potential causes of stress in the organization.
Assess risk factors for each hazard and potential causes of stress in the organization.
Use the information to assess the organizations' performance in relation to health and wellness.
Involve all role players in developing employee health and wellness solutions, plans and standards as well as the governance thereof.
Ensure that resources are made available to enable the health and wellness plan.
Implement and evaluate the wellness and health plan.
Stress as a major impact on employee health and wellness:
One of the major identified causes of poor health is stress.
Cause low productivity, high rate of production errors and accidents, high turnover and absenteeism.
Management must be understand stress, cause;
1. Face enormous challenges and work under constant pressure. Require self-competencies to cope with stress.
2. If they understand stress, they have better chance to protect their own well-being and that of their employees. Can build up resilience to stress.
Able to plan and introduce stress-reducing changes in their department.
Stress:
It is the body's reaction to demands and changes that require it to adapt physically, mentally and emotionally.
Stress is triggered when the situation is perceived as either a challenge or threat to the individual.
Job -related Stress; an uncomfortable feeling experienced by an individual who is required to change their desired behavior as a result of opportunities, constraints or demands related to important work objectives.
Moderated by number of variables;
1. Personality type
2. Competency with demands
3. Whether you feel in control of outcome of situation
4. Whether you expect event to occur.
5. How important situation or problem is to you.
Its not the stressors that make you feel stressed, but our response to them.
Also susceptible to many influences and pressures in society that arise because of change, technological progress and political conflict.
The Physiology of Stress Response:
The General Adaption Syndrome; is an automatic defense system consisting of 3 stages;
1. Alarm Reaction; the perception of a threat or challenge leads to a biochemical response that results in shock and a decrease in our ability to cope.
2. Resistance; various biochemical and psychological mechanisms become activated (increased level of adrenaline) and these increase our coping ability and give us energy to deal with stressor.
3. Exhaustion; if we are unable to withdraw from the stressful situation in order to face it with renewed vigor later (through sleep or exercise), the body's capacity for resistance becomes exhausted, and depleted, leaving the individual vulnerable.
Long-Term Stress:
People tend to spend extended periods of time using the "fight or flight" responsewithout returning to a balanced state. Results in long term episodes of distress.
Distress; an unhealthy emotional, physical and behavioral response to life.
As a result, our natural response to stress may also become exaggerated so when faced with relatively low stress task, we use high levels of adrenaline to get it done, rather than relaxing more and treating the task something less urgent.
Model of Organizational Stress:
Workplace Stressors:
1. Organizational Factors:
Change and job security are stressful for employees.
2. Job-Design Factors:
Continuous exposure to poor working conditions increases stress levels and consequently, physical and mental health, morale and productivity.
Traveling, noise, chemical environment, severe time constraints and repetitive routine work are possible stressors. As well as technological advancement.
3. Interactional Factors:
Interpersonal demands required to maintain effective customer and collegial relationships.
Include critical work attitudes of colleagues, autocratic leader behavior, team pressures to conform and diversity issues.
*To manage stressors;
Prioritize effectively.
Manage, delegate, and clarify expectations.
Make time, and memo it.
Ensure regular feedback and ongoing performance reviews.
4. Career and Promotional Factors;
Poor career planning may cause confusion and stress.
Plateaued career; characterized by poor promotional prospects.
Unfulfilled career expectations may cause motivational problems in employees who lack status and autonomy.
5. Role-related Factors;
Role conflict occurs when two conflicting demands compete with one another and the employee is unable to fulfill both sets of expectations; like working on a Sunday, conflict with personal values.
Role ambiguity; refers to unclear or confusing expectations about duties, level of authority, social expectations and related job factors.
6. Work under-load or overload problems;
Stress can occur from under-stimulation and over-stimulation.
Eustress; point where the demands of life are optimally matched with our ability to function effectively.
Eustress created by;
a) Identifying aspects of the work that engage an individual and enhancing these aspects of their working experience.
b) Setting meaningful goals, proving resources necessary to fulfill them and maintaining frequent dialogue.
c) Assisting employees to develop the competencies required to identify their own Eustress.
Distress can be managed at 3 levels;
1. Primary; by modifying or eliminating the stressor.
2. Secondary; by increasing awareness of the need for exercise, meditation, relaxation and healthy lifestyle.
3. Tertiary; by treating symptoms of stress through counselling and support.
Under-stimulation; work is boring, become alienated and distressed. Common among factory workers on assembly line.
7. Stressful Occupations:
Those that require unpopular decision-making (manager) those requiring complex negotiations and exchange of information (industrial relations) and those involving constant monitoring of displays (air traffic controllers).
As well as teachers, and security guard.
Non-Work Stressors:
1. Time and Strain Based Conflict:
Time based conflicts reflects stress experienced when employees try and balance time demanded by work, family and non-work tasks.
Strain-based conflicts occurs when stress from work and non-work domains spill over into each other. Stress in personal life can affect work experience, while personal life stress can create increased tension and fatigue among employees at work.
2. Significant Life Events:
A cluster of too many significant life events can significantly predict our chances for future illness.
Includes; things like the death of a spouse, divorce, marital separation, marriage, job loss and change in working hours.
Burnout and Aggression:
1. Occupational Burnout:
Is a condition where the employees' coping resources have been consumed by work and life demands, to the point of poor job performance and exhaustion.
Burnout develops as a result of overwork, trying to reach too many goals in a constant and persistent high-pressure environment while working with difficult peers, managers and customers.
Burnout does not usually affect more easy going employees, rather affects those people with high expectations for success that exceeds their ability to deliver in the long term.
Individuals with lower levels of coherence are often victims of burnout.
Burnout is a condition related to perfectionism. Affects those trying to maintain a perfect life, perfect work and perfect marriage, etc.
Signs of Burnout include;
1. Early Signs;
Too busy for time off.
Complaining about quality of work of others.
Regularly taking work home.
2. Mid Signs;
Unable to manage longer hours.
Lack of enjoyment in job.
Disassociation from job and clients.
Avoiding colleagues.
3. Danger Signs;
Isolation from interpersonal situations.
Increased absenteeism.
Physical symptoms.
Substance abuse as coping mechanisms.
2. Aggression:
Frustration, if not released, leads to aggressive behavior.
The frustration/aggression hypothesis explains the dynamic that causes an employee to lash out verbally or physically at other people or objects in the workplace.
Caused by interruption of goals.
We normally react 4 aggressive ways;
1. Verbal Aggression; verbally lash out at another person.
2. Physical Aggression; includes damage to work equipment and more, serious violence to others.
3. Internalized Aggression; bottle up the hurt and frustration, and repress the feelings that we have. May lead to explosion of feelings/emotions or implosion of feelings, leading to depression or anxiety.
4. Corporate Aggression; refers to aggression towards the company. Can be subtle and employee develops negative external locus of control against the company and gets stuck in a situation of counterproductive anger.
When employees learn to release their frustrations and negative emotions harmlessly through many different coping strategies available to the, they are able to rebuild themselves (physically and emotionally) and recover their positive attitude at work.
Personality and Stress:
Reactions to stress categorized into 2 parts;
1. Distress-resistant types:
Distress-resistant personalities tend to experience positive moods and feelings in most situations. Tend to provide a buffer against various stressors.
Optimists; are those people whose positive pattern of thinking enables them to respond to problems with an internal locus of control and they become depressed less often.
Hardy personalities, characterized by three C's;
1. Commitment to the event as a challenge rather than a threat.
2. Control over the situation.
3. Challenge, seeing the event as having potential value for personal growth.
These people have high self-esteem, repellent against stress.
People with high sense of coherence (SOC) are able to make sense of the demands of life and to respond to these, competently.
Emotional Intelligence (EI or EQ) refers to people with an ability to cope with the demands of their environment.
Includes; empathy, emotional control, balanced thoughts, emotions and behavior.
The survivor personality type refers to people who have survived a major crises or challenges and emerge stronger from it.
2. Distress-prone types:
People that tend to experience life situations as negative.
1. The Hostile person is generally more irritated and angry with others. Hostility significantly increases a person's stress. Hostile aggression linked to stress-induced heart attacks.
2. The Perfectionist, sees events in a hypocritical way. Often self-punishing in their drive to be in control and do things accurately, and their happiness suffers as a result.
3. The Procrastinator; puts off doings things for a variety of reasons. Underlying reason, deep fear of success or failure, or reliance of others.
4. Type A people; try overachieve in their personal lives and careers. Try to be everything to everybody.
5. The Worriers; are over-concerned with problems and their imagined ideas are tiresome to others. Personalities characterized by learned helplessness are not able to cope with normal work demands, and tend to give up a goal prematurely.
6. Codependents; addicted to pleasing people and caring about the problems of others. Have weak boundaries and poor communication patterns. Overreact rather than respond to stress.
1. Type A Personality:
Has the following traits;
1. Typically competitive.
2. Strong sense of time urgency.
3. High levels of irritability.
4. Reports high levels of impatience with co-workers.
Negative consequences like;
1. Time related stress.
2. Generalized emotional tension.
3. Less life and job satisfaction.
4. More health related problems (heart problems).
Type A Personality is associated with unresolved anger issues due to trait of hyper aggressiveness and free-floating hostility (dwelling anger that erupts at trivial occurrences).
Type A; caught up in a constant struggle to accomplish and produce results. Emotionally, this personality will experience a generalized anxiety orientation with no direct cause.
2. Type B Personality:
Emotional, behavioral and cognitive life is characterized by a lack of Type A qualities.
Approach life in a less competitive and less time-oriented way. Suffer less personal insecurity than Type A and have higher self-esteem.
Tend to score higher on levels of agreeableness and emotional stability.
As a result, their work is more casual, but systematic.
Prefer a steady pace of work, feel less conflicted with people and have more balanced approach to life.
Less likely to experience distress and related physical symptoms like heart disease.
*Can Type A behavior be changed;
There is evidence that a conscious view of being autonomous and in control of our work life situation is prophylactic against stress.
Therefore, our attitudes towards stress, can save us from its negative consequences.
Practicing Type B traits can help.
Finding creative releases for anger.
3. Type C Personality:
Characterized by peak performance under pressure.
Combination of the most effective aspects of Type A and Type B patterns.
Type C personalities should feel confident and enthusiastic about their ability to accomplish tasks with an appropriate level of effort.
Instead of feeling exhausted after effort, Type C will feel energized as a result of achievement.
Two distinct characteristics of Type C personality;
1. Rationality (suppression of negative emotions).
2. Strong need to maintain harmony.
In summary;
Type A personalities find themselves in panic zone.
Type B in drone zone.
Type C in committed zone.
Managing Work-Place Stress:
Stress is caused by the build-up of too many commitments over time, so that we reach a point where we are unable to meet the demands of our jobs, and the situation spirals out of control.
A toolbox of strategies can be used by an individual, or the organization.
Stress Management Strategies:
Individual Strategies:
1. Boundary/Role Management:
One way to alleviate stress is to give workers more control or autonomy over their work. This involves being assertive when dealing with challenges and projects, and having a clear view of our ability to deliver an agreed outcome.
Our boundaries in terms of scope and deliverables of a project will need to be negotiated.
Employees may need to clarify role-expectations due to an ambiguous job description or when working in a matrix structure.
If a job seems challenging, we may need to break the project into smaller units to make it seem less daunting.
Another form of boundary management involves setting professional boundaries for relationship and time management.
Relationship management includes setting boundaries for those individuals who have a tendency to engage in office politics.
These people could also be time thieves, other time thieves are those who demand time to get their work done rather than planning their own activities in such a way that last-minute visits, which make demands on your time, are not required.
Handling these types of individuals require assertiveness but once boundaries have been set, they are respected, and save you much time and consequent tension and stress.
2. Cognitive Strategies
We can change the way we perceive a situation.
Through cognitive restructuring, people are able to prevent irrational and negative thoughts and substitute them with a more positive and healthy mental approach.
This will consciously reduce their adrenaline response.
There are many cognitive fallacies (fallacy of responsibility).
Constructive self-talk, is a technique that assists people to alter negative situations of a stressful event.
3. Time management and planning
They are core skills for dealing with a stressful job.
Symptoms of poor time management include rushing, feeling disorganized, always running around, lack of time to oneself, no time for family or friends, having too much to do and not getting things done, procrastination and the feeling of always being in crisis mode.
A major reason for poor planning and time management is the lack of a clear life plan in which a personal vision, purpose and related goals are set.
This is exacerbated by a lack of clarity on the duties and responsibilities required of a job.
Three central concepts of effective time management;
1. A clear goal statement and plan.
2. A to-do list.
3. A schedule.
Employees need to formulate a clear life goal statement and review it annually.
To-do list includes all time demands and tasks with accompanying priority ratings, so things can be done at the right time, specified.
4. Lifestyle Management
Balancing work and non-work roles requires a purposeful appraisal of one's career goals, strategies and conception of success.
Time-based conflicts extend beyond employees with families, and it has become important to address the balancing of these roles.
Planned rest periods after a period of high stress is a useful technique. This could be used on an hourly, daily, weekly and monthly basis.
For every "peak" period, employees must build in a "valley" area where they can rest, relax and restore themselves for the next challenge. Personal leave, time out or paid sabbaticals are used frequently for this purpose.
Physical health, is a buffer for the negative consequences of stress. Physical exercise is used to build and maintain stress fitness. It help employees to moderate the automatic adrenaline response when faced with stress, as well as provide higher levels of endorphins (feel-good hormones) in the blood system.
Correct nutritional intake, enough sleep, relaxation and meditation will enable the body and mind to maintain optimal functioning during stress.
Organizational Strategies:
1. Supportive Organization Practices
Organizations should provide stress support for employees.
Role classification and goal setting are critical managerial functions. The employee needs clarification of individual job responsibilities and performance feedback.
Supportive management relationships can help individuals cope with stress.
Another effective strategy for the organization is to remove unnecessary stressors that cause anxiety.
Another effective strategy involves removing direct work-related stressors (like improving job design and safety aspects, improve job-person matching, improve communication).
Flexible work schedules (like flextime, telecommuting) are specifically aimed at reducing time and role based conflicts.
The inclusion of more informal "stress" breaks, leave and sabbaticals can be encouraged.
Improvements in interactional situations (like customer service training, team building and diversity management) also serve to buffer the impact of stressors.
Virtual work is also a beneficial option, it reduces conflicts between home and work roles, though could cause stress for those who have a high need for affiliation.
2. Job design
Job design changes can enrich or enlarge jobs, and will assist in reducing stressors related to autonomy, routineness and complexity.
Organizations can bring a positive psychology mindset into the workplace, influencing mental health and making the workplace more humane, with a positive bottom-line impact.
Trend to work with employees' strengths rather than weaknesses, can help with managing stress.
Coaching can be offered to employees as a practical and cost-effective method, to improve employee wellness, through active consciousness and self-reflection.
3. Wellness programmes
Wellness programmes fall under the occupational health care programme for workers. The focus is on the improvement of emotional, physical and spiritual wellness of employees. Includes;
1. A vision statement; outlines what you are trying to achieve, like improve the health and wellbeing of employees through health education and activities.
2. Programme goals; are usually long term and state what the organization wishes to achieve by the programme. Goals should be realistic and reflect the needs of both the organization and the employees.
3. Programme Objectives; these are the tactical plans that will be implemented to achieve the goals set in step 2. They should read like goals, and should be realistic, with specific steps and timelines for completion so that progress can be measured.
4. Programme Timeline; a realistic timeline to implement and evaluate the programme should be considered. The dates given in step 3 will typically form part of the time, and timeline usually in accordance with the organizations' financial year cycle.
5. Programme Budget; includes all the resources required to put the plans into operation, like salaries, materials, administrative needs, vendors and all other related costs. Important to plan this aspect well, as the lack of a comprehensive budget could jeopardize the success of the programme.
6. Communication Plan; the objective of a communication or marketing plan, is to improve employee awareness and especially in sensitive cases like alcohol abuse, to get people to participate voluntarily so they do not feel victimized. Careful planning and decision making are needed for this plan to attract the right individuals and to ensure they feel secure enough to participate. The marketing efforts and communication techniques will vary according to comapny size and budget. Use company bulletin boards, email and newsletters, and incorporate some fun into it. Keep it simple.
7. Employee Involvement; ensure employee involvement in planning and implementation, like the use of opinion surveys.
8. Leadership Commitment; get top management's commitment and involvement so that the necessary resources are made available for wellness programmes and that employees can see it is a company priority.
9. Implementation Plan; this will typically include the programme outline and related information. It will include assigned responsible persons and their duties and responsibilities.
10. Evaluation Plan; this is critical in ensuring that the programme has met its intended purpose. It includes measuring how well the programme is working, and whether or not it is achieving the expected results. Surveys are examples of evaluations that can be done for this purpose, success will depend on the achievement of specific goals set at the beginning of the programme.
Decision-Making refers to a dynamic cognitive process used to describe the act of seeking information, interpretation, arriving conclusion or judgement in relation an issue.
Method used by managers to organize, prioritize and sort information.
The decision itself is a moment in time when a person making the decision chooses the preferred purpose, the most reasonable task statement, or the best course of action.
Types of Decisions:
1. Programmed Decisions: describe well-thought-out solutions to specific problems. Decisions arrived at by performing tasks that follows a defined set of guidelines, tested through experience. Appropriate rules and procedures followed.
2. Non-Programmed Decisions: describe unstructured solutions to more complex and ambiguous problems. Regular and procedures are not sufficient in these situations. Innovative solutions, and an unusual application of existing rules.
3. Strategic Decision-Making: senior management makes decisions that have an impact on the whole long-term future and performance of the organization. Decisions trigger numerous other decisions lower down in the organization. Influence the nature of decisions throughout the organization.
5 Criteria must be used in identifying and making strategic decisions;
1. Decision must be directed towards defining the organizations relationship to its environment.
2. The decision must take the organization as a whole, as a unit of analysis.
3. The decision must encompass all the major functions performed in the organization.
4. The decision must provide constrained guidance of all the administrative and operational activities of the organization.
5. The decision must be critically important to the long-term success of the total organization.
To optimize strategic decisions-making and realize the organizations strategic position, a gap analysis needs to be done to determine the "strategic gap" between the organizations' capabilities and resources and the nature and pressure of the organizations' external resources.
To see where there is a negative, positive or zero strategic gap.
4. Operational Decisions: are concerned with the day-to-day activities of the company. Customer complaints, employee assignments, equipment use expected crises like absenteeism, computer breakdowns and delays of supplies, all require making a decision.
5. Top-down decisions: managers have made most decisions in an organization, and passed them to employees lower in the hierarchy for implementation. May save time and yield high-quality decisions but employees may question them as they played no part in them.
6. Worker-Empowered Decisions: participation of employees in making-decisions. Based on assumption that people who participate in making decisions, shows higher levels of organizational commitment, are more productive, satisfied and motivated.
Decision-Making Styles:
*Decision-Making influenced by decision maker, effective managers and leaders are characterized by;
Involving the right people in the decision, at right time.
Use process that keeps people engaged and on track.
Recognize power of shared Decision-Making.
Ask the right questions.
Decision-Making style reflects the combination of how an individual sees and understands stimuli, and general way its responded to.
They vary along 2 dimensions;
1. Value Orientation; reflects the extent to which an individual focuses on task and technical concerns or people, and social concerns.
2. Tolerance Ambiguity; extent to which a person needs structure or control in their life.
Combined, these dimensions form 4 styles of Decision-Making:
1. Directive Style:
Efficient, logical, practical and systematic, focus on facts.
Make decisions rapidly, consider few alternatives.
Autocratic, assertive to achieve results.
2. Analytical Style:
More willing to consider complex solutions based on ambiguous information.
Tolerance for ambiguity, analyze situation too closely.
Careful and take extra long.
Enjoy solving problems and want best possible answers.
3. Conceptual Style:
Socially oriented in approach to problems.
Consider number of alternatives, have strong future orientation, and enjoy initiating new ideas.
High tolerance for ambiguity, willing to take risks and focus on people.
Encourages idealistic and indecisive approach to Decision-Making.
4. Behavioral Style:
Focus on people aspect of decisions.
Passionate concern for organization, and for personal development of coworkers.
Supportive of others, open to suggestions.
Find it difficult to say "no" and to make difficult decisions.
Decision-Making Principles and Rules:
Strongly influenced by the need to provide an ethical justification for a persons' decision and behaviors.
Range from those who justify their decisions for their own interest to those that require consideration of human rights.
1. Hedonism - do what's in your best interest.
2. Might-equals-right - strength let's you take advantage without respecting social conventions and normal practices.
3. Conventionalism - take advantage of all legal opportunities through bluffing.
4. Intuition - go with your gut feeling.
5. Organization Ethics - do what is good for the organization.
Unethical decisions often emanate from organizational crises like poor management.
Hurried or ill-conceived decision-making is regarded as unethical. Therefore, essential to have method for ethical Decision-Making.
Ethical Principles include:
1. Disclosure; how would audience respond?
2. Distribute Justice; not base individuals' treatment on arbitrarily defined characteristics.
3. Categorical Imperative; act as you think is right and just for others in similar situation.
4. Golden Rule; determine how others would feel in similar situation.
*Several actions suggested for integrating ethical Decision-Making into everyday life of organization;
Establish organizational culture that promotes ethical Decision-Making.
Ensure those who make decisions are accountable for them.
Develop a clear code of ethics, establish procedure for ethical concerns and follow it.
The Characteristics of Decision-Making:
1. Quality; determined by the outcome of the decision being made. Desired outcomes and specified criteria will be met. Organization will meet its strategic.
2. Timeliness; refers to the need to make the decision within an acceptable time-frame.
3. Acceptance; by those affected can result in a good decision, if individuals understand and implement the decision, as intended. Must have employee support.
4. Ethical Appropriateness; decision should be made according to its ethical justness.
Technical/Task skills refers to the individuals' knowledge of the content area of the decision.
Interpersonal and Leadership skills indicate the way individuals lead, communicate with, motivate and influence others.
Decision-Making skills indicate the ability to perform the components of the rational Decision-Making process.
Decision-Making Models:
1. Analytical Model of Decision-Making:
It is the model of the analytical steps that groups or individuals take to solve problems.
Reduced to 4 steps;
1. Assess
2. Plan
3. Implement
4. Evaluate
Step 1: Identify, assess and state the problem.
Step 2: Define the objectives to be met, in solving the problem.
Step 3: Make a pre-decision.
Step 4: Generate and list alternatives.
Step 5: Evaluate the alternative solutions and options.
Step 6: Choose among the alternatives and make a decision.
Step 7: Implement the chosen alternative.
Step 8: Follow up.
Referred to as the rational model.
Uses the 4 step sequence of identifying, selecting a solution, implementing it and evaluating it.
There is criticism that neither rational or analytical model of decision-making adequately describes the process, nor can they be used as a guide to effective decision-making.
The rational decision-making process is based on certain assumptions and characteristics that are highly unrealistic in practice;
a) Decision makers have a clear understanding of the nature of the problem, and of their objectives in relation to it.
b) Comprehensive search for alternative courses of action, and their consequences with respect to this problem is possible.
c) Continual and objective monitoring of consequences is carried out to determine the success of the chosen course of action with respect to the objective.
The rational decision-making model does not refer to the filtering and constraining influences of an organization on the decision-making process as a whole. The model also ignores the effects of power, on this process.
2. The Rational-Economic Model:
Follows the same steps outlined in the analytical model.
However, an economically rational decision maker attempts to maximize profits, by systematically searching for the optimum solution.
Have to know and evaluate all the possible courses of action, must be accurate.
Says what they should do, but not how they actually behave.
3. The Bounded Rationality Model:
Also known as Simon's Normative Model, or "Administration Man" theory.
Reflects a decision-maker's tendency to select less than best alternative solution (the process of satisficing), to work with limited number of alternative solutions and make decisions based on inadequate information.
Assumptions include;
1. Managers select the first alternative that is satisfactory.
2. Manager recognize that their image of the world is simple.
3. Managers are comfortable making decisions without determining all the consequences.
4. Managers make decisions by rule of thumb, or "heuristics".
Satisficing; the practice of selecting an acceptable or reasonable alternative or solution.
Acceptable may mean easier to identify, safer and less controversial.
Heuristics; refers to a persons' use of trial and error or shortcuts, to reduce information processing.
Allows managers to make decisions based on past experiences, or what has worked in the past.
1. Availability Heuristics: refers to a decision makers' tendency to make decisions on information is accessible from memory.
2. Representativeness Heuristics: refers to a person's tendency to estimate the probability of an event occurring.
Heuristics can cause people to overestimate the occurrence of unlikely events and can result in a biased decision.
4. The Political Model:
Problem definitions, information collection and evaluation criteria are used to improve someone's position.
The distribution of power in an organization determines the tactics used by participants in the decision-making process.
The political model draws on several self-serving ethical principles;
1. The Hedonistic Principle; do whatever you find to be in your own self-interest.
2. The might-equals-right Principle; you are strong enough to take advantage without respect to ordinary social rules and customs.
3. The Conventialist Principle; bluff, take advantage of all opportunities and wide spread practices.
5. The Garbage Can Model:
Developed in response to rational model's limitations.
For this model, decisions are random and unsystematic.
The organization is a garbage can in which decisions result from complex interaction between 4 independent factors.
Quality of decision depends on timing, right participants must find right solution to the right problem at the right time.
Four practical implications for managers;
1. Many decisions will be made by oversight or in presence of opportunity.
2. Political or power motives often guide the process by which participants make decisions.
3. The decision-making process depends on the number of problems and the amount of time available to solve them.
4. Important problems are more likely to be solved than unimportant ones.
6. Contingency Perspective:
There exists a place for each decision-making model as the effectiveness depends on the situation.
Most decision makers have contingencies - different situations call for different strategies;
1. The Analytical Model is effect/appropriate when information is complete, and the ends are clear. Incomplete information makes identifying the best through analytical model, impossible.
2. The Rational Economic Model is appropriate when information is complete, when goals are clear and all alternatives are considered until the best solution is discovered. Incomplete information and partial consideration of alternatives, make it optimizing impossible.
3. The Bounded Rationality Model, is appropriate when information is incomplete, and goals are clear. In this case, satisficing replaces optimizing.
4. The Political Model is appropriate when power dominates organizational decision making and personal goals, are more important than organizational ones.
5. The Garbage Can Model is appropriate in loosely structured organizations if information is incomplete and objectives are not clear. Occasionally, chance will link lost-lasting problems with appropriate solutions.
Decision-Making and Risk:
Probability of obtaining a desired outcome contributes to the risk of making a decision.
Objective Probabilities; based on actual and verifiable data.
Subjective Probabilities; based on personal feelings about what will happen.
Reduce uncertainty by;
a) Establish linkages with other organizations.
b) Obtaining information about the past and present when making projections of the future.
People usually choose options that involve minimal risk, while risk takers believe it is necessary.
Risk-taking is influenced by the situation.
Risks need to be carefully managed and reduced for effective decision-making.
Risk management; is the process of risk identification, determining the possible impact of the risk and instituting the best measures to assert or reduce the identified risk.
4 basic phases in risk control include;
1. Identifying and understanding the risk.
2. Risk Analysis.
3. Risk Regulation.
4. Risk Monitoring.
Managers often make bad decisions under time constraints and pressure.
Realistic information should be given to maintain optimism, and have a staff that can handle the pressure too.
While time pressure is regarded as a barrier to effective decision-making, it can have the opposite effect and motivate managers to make decisions and move on.
May act as a target and encourage manager and organizational flexibility.
The Group Decision-Making Process:
When group members stimulate new solutions to problems through the practice of mutual influence and encouragement, synergy is taking place.
*Advantages of Group Decision-Making;
More knowledge and information through the pooling of group member resources.
Many perspectives due to diversity.
Collective memory.
Easier communication.
Easier coordination.
*Disadvantages of Group Decision-Making;
Social pressure among group members to conform.
Time consuming.
Domination of group by one member or smaller groups.
Goal displacement to win an argument.
Groupthink, which allows desire for agreement to override sound judgement.
Group versus individual performance;
1. Groups are less efficient than individuals where time is involved.
2. Groups are more confident about their choices.
3. Group size affects decision outcomes.
4. Decision-Making is more accurate when group knows great deal about the issues at hand.
*When are groups superior to individuals?
When complex decisions have to be made.
Need to be experts.
*When are individuals superior to groups?
On loosely structure, unfamiliar, creative tasks.
Techniques for Group Decision-Making;
1. Brainstorming:
Technique used to help groups generate multiple ideas for solving problems.
Come together and review problem.
Cause one alternative, to trigger another.
Gives feeling of participation.
Six principles for generation of high-quality ideas;
a) Criticism is out, quantity required.
b) Specific, difficult target set.
c) Individuals should generate initial ideas.
d) Use group interaction to combine and refine ideas.
e) Select final ideas by individual votes.
f) Keep time required short.
2. Nominal Group Technique:
Structured group meeting that generates ideas and evaluates solutions.
Come together, discuss problem, silently and individually generate ideas to solve it.
All shown, criticize, then anonymously vote for top choice.
3. Delphi Technique:
Generates ideas or opinions from physically dispersed group, through questionnaires or internet.
Questionnaire sent, filled, returned and manager summarizes.
Participants then review it, prioritize the issues and return the survey to the manager.
Used to avoid conflict and group-think.
4. Dialectical Inquiry:
Consists of a debate between two sets of recommendations.
Constructive approach, though can lay foundation for conflict, brings out limitations and benefits of both sets of ideas.
5. Computer-Aided Decision-Making:
Queries or reports that show data in real-time.
Fast.
Works for geographically dispersed individuals.
Stimulating Creative Decision-Making:
Creativity is the process of using imagination and skill, to develop a new or unique product, process or thought.
The creativity process consists of 5 stages;
1. Preparation; start from base of implied or explicit knowledge.
2. Concentration; allows individuals to focus on problem at hand.
3. Incubation; involves thinking over information and making remote associations.
4. Illumination; generates concrete associations.
5. Verification; entails going through the entire process to verify, modify or test new ideas.
The Role of Intuition in Creative Decision-Making:
Intuition has been described as the ability to know or recognize quickly or readily, the possibilities of the situation, and the smooth, automatic performance of learned behavior and their sequences.
Intuition as a decision-making style, appears to be related to organizational effectiveness.
*Lateral Thinking;
Deliberate process for generating new ideas by changing an individuals' or teams, typical logical pattern of processing and storing information.
A skill that can't be learnt.
1. Reversal Technique; process of examining a problem and turn it around completely, inside out.
2. Cross-Fertilization Technique; when experts from other fields are asked to a view a problem and solve it from their own areas.
3. Analogy Technique; process of developing a statement about similarities between objects, people or situations.
4. Random-Word Stimulation Technique; word randomly selected, and link sought between word and problem.
Managerial Decision-Making:
1. Problem Recognition; must investigate if its a problem.
2. Problem Interpretation; once meaning is given, can ignore or take action.
3. Attention to Problems
4. Courses of Action;
a) Quick Action Process; relevant when problem is well structured, one manager to solve it and search form information and alternatives are limited.
b) Convoluted-Action Process; applied to problems that are unstructured, many things involved and search for solution requires many people.
5. Aftermath; involves evaluation of results of actions taken.
Process Perspective on Strategic Decision-Making:
Five Criteria for identifying, and making strategic decisions;
1. Decision must be directed towards defining the organizations' relationships to its environment.
2. Decision must take the organization as a whole, as a unit of analysis.
3. The decision must encompass all major functions performed in the organization.
4. The decision must provide constrained guidance for all of the administrative and operational activities of the organization.
5. The decision must be critically important to the long run success of the organization.
There are 4 types of Strategic Choices;
1. Type A; has the best combination of managerial attitudes for making successful strategic choices.
2. Type B; characterized by realistic managerial attitude towards the decision, but this positive attitude is offset by an objective that is either initially unattainable or rendered unattainable.
3. Type C; strategic choices are made in pursuit of attainable objectives but requires a more realistic managerial attitude towards a decision.
4. Type D; is most unlikely to succeed with unattainable objectives, eliciting a desire for unattainable results.
Influence of Cultural Issues and Gender, on Decision-Making:
There are differences in the way people from various cultures make decisions.
Also differs between individualistic and collectivist cultures, and cultural differences. Understanding differences is important to develop appropriate strategies.
Gender also has an impact on decision-making.
Woman take longer to make decisions and look at more points before making a decision.
Despite these differences being linked to education, stereotyping and social norms, roles and power relation, they are important in managing South Africa's increasingly gender diverse workplace.
Today is characterized by radical change, immense volatility and national dynamics. SA businesses have to cope with competition, information technology, transformation and more demanding customers.
Leadership is the key factor in whether SA can capitalize on this.
Leadership determines how organizations respond to challenges. Leaders' values, attitudes, styles and responses are important in this.
Leaders should embrace behaviors and attitudes associated with contemporary leaders.
Leadership is not restricted to the CEO, but anyone can use it, and it is a vital skill to have.
Followers are also important, and follows have the responsibility for their own behavior, and manage themselves to make a meaningful contribution to the organization.
Leadership:
Defined as the social process of influencing people to work voluntarily, enthusiastically and persistently towards a purposeful group or organizational goal.
Its not restricted to a formal position or authority, anyone can exert influence on others.
Organizations are trying to establish a leadership culture by introducing team-based structures, developing leadership competency and empowering employees.
To understand better, compare leadership behaviors to management behaviors.
Leaders add an inspirational and emotional dimension to the organization by creating a shared vision and inspiring people to become passionate about achieving that vision.
Leaders have a long-term perspective and develop strategies to achieve organizational ideals.
Managers on the other hand, are responsible for developing and implementing plans and budgets to achieve the strategic objectives of the organization effectively.
Management typically involved in planning, organizing, problem solving and control activities, related to everyday business.
#Differences between leadership and management:
Leadership Behavior:
Initiate change.
Develop.
Inspire people.
Do the right things.
Assume long term perspective.
Connect with followers.
Management Behavior:
Implement change.
Maintain.
Monitor people.
Do things right.
Act reactively.
Preserve authority.
The effective leader seeks out situations that require change, does the right, and operates by using personal influence.
The effective leader is stronger on vision and on inspiration.
In control, the effective manager implements change, creates momentum rather than inspiration and relies on positional influence.
Main purpose of leadership; to ensure organization achieves its mission and strategic vision.
Identified behaviors of effective leaders;
1. Leaders create a clear path for how the organization will move from its current position to a desired position.
2. Leaders identify what steps need to be taken to reach the incremental objectives that lead to desired destination.
3. Leaders mobilize all the organizations' resources (people, processes, products, services, partnerships, customer relationships) towards goal attainment.
4. Leaders continuously navigate these resources to achieve the ultimate goal.
Leaders align the efforts of others with organization vision by;
A successful leader is able to form alliances and partnerships with other leaders, as well as with internal and external customers and suppliers.
Traditional Perspectives of Leadership:
1. Trait Perspective:
Assumption; leaders are born with specific leadership traits and characteristics. Supportive Theory;lack of theoretical support, identified traits and characteristics are also evident in non-leaders.
2. Behavioral Approach:
Assumption; Leadership is a combination of task and relationship behaviors, effective leaders have a concern for both, a team leadership style is the best. Supportive Theory; Ohio and Michigan studies, Blake and Mouton's leadership grid.
3. Contingency Leadership Approach:
Assumption; there is no best leadership style. Effectiveness depends on using the appropriate style based on a given situation. Supportive Theory;Fiedler's model of contingency leadership, path goal theory, situational leadership.
#Leadership Characteristics;
1. Trait theory, one of the earliest academic approaches, main assumption is that leaders are born, not made. However, people with these traits remain followers.
More recently, the trait perspective is called the competency perspective, as emphasis is placed more on broader competencies (knowledge, skills, and abilities achieved through education, training or experience) rather than personality and physical traits.
*Traits include;
Drive
Leadership motivation.
Integrity
Self-confidence.
Intelligence
Knowledge of business and emotional intelligence.
Placed in clusters;
1. Personal Competencies; like achievement motivation, self-confidence, energy and personal effectiveness.
2. Social Competencies; like influence, political awareness and empathy.
3. Cognitive Competencies; like conceptual thinking and a helicopter view.
While the trait approach focuses on the leader itself, the behavioral approaches focuses on what the leader does, in other words, the behavior of the leader.
The Behavioral Leadership Perspective:
Two dimensions of leadership behavior;
1. Relationship dimension (consideration)
2. Task dimension (initiating structure)
a) "Consideration" is leadership behavior associated with creating mutual respect and trust, and showing concern for the needs of employees.
b) "Initiating structure" is leadership behavior associated with work structure and goal attainment.
These studies emphasized that leaders can be effective, only if they are concerned with both the task and employee, and integrate both.
Blake and Mouton's Leadership Grid, is one of the most widely used and known models;
It also has two dimensions;
1. Concern for production.
2. Concern for people.
They form the intersection of a matrix, that identifies 5 leadership styles;
1. The Impoverished Leader:
Does the minimum required to maintain membership in the organization.
Typically not engage in much communication.
Pass problems to others.
Avoid, or sidestep conflict.
2. The Task Master:
Use authority to influence employees and shows little concern for individual aspirations and needs.
Make use of downward communication.
Make decisions unilaterally.
Use authoritative command to deal with conflict.
3. The Country-Club Leader:
Wants to remain popular by maintaining a relaxed and conflict free environment.
Therefore, discourages divergent thinking.
Seeks close relationships with followers, through non-task related communication.
Makes decisions that will be readily accepted.
Tries to accomodate others during conflict.
4. Middle-of-the-road Leader:
Maintains balance between people and production, by keeping goal attainment and relationships at a satisfactory level.
Communication is adequate, employees are acknowledged and conflict is resolved by compromise.
Leader will not seek to optimize in terms of production or relationships.
5. The Team Leader:
Attempts to maximize performance and employee satisfaction.
Adopts multi-directional approach to communication.
Empowers employees to make decisions.
Resolves conflict through open discussion, and collaboration.
Considered best approach, however, some disagree.
Leadership grid useful for leaders to identify style, and consider what to change or adjust.
Also used as basis to determine overall approach of organization, in terms of leadership.
The Contingency Leadership Perspective:
The contingency theories of leadership assumes that there is no best way to lead people, but depends n the situation. Contingency = depends.
Effective leadership; seen as a result of a fit between the leader, the followers and situation.
1. Fiedler's Contingency Leadership Theory:
Suggests that leaders are either task or relationship oriented, and have to be placed in a situation suitable to their style.
The theory incorporates the concepts of;
1. Task Structure
2. Leader-Mentor relations
3. Position Power.
Assumption is that a highly task oriented leader will be more successful if they are appointed (position power) in a structured environment (clear task) when subordinates are receptive to this type of leadership style (strong leader acceptance).
Such a leader will be less successful in an environment where formal leadership is not a necessity (weak leadership power);
1. The task requires diverse input (low structure).
2. When members are not receptive to the style (weak leader acceptance)
Based on this theory, to be an effective leader, must be matched with specific situation.
2. Path-Goal Theory:
Postulates that leadership style should be appropriately matched with a situation, but in contrast to Fiedler's Model, states that a leader can change their leaderships style according to the situation.
A leader first has to evaluate a situation in terms of the followers (task ability, self-efficacy and experience) and the environment (task complexity).
Once the leader has assessed the situation, they must decide which style is best to use in the situation.
Directive Style, is suitable when the task is complex, follower is inexperienced and needs much guidance.
Supportive Style is useful when followers works in difficult circumstances or when a task is boring or monotonous and the employee therefore needs encouragement.
Participative Style, practical when a follower wants to be involved and has a high level of self-efficacy, but an external locus of control.
Achievement Style, the leaders sets high yet achievable goals and the followers are competent and willing to accept them.
Contemporary Leadership Perspectives:
1. The Leader-Member Exchange Model of Leadership:
The LMX model addresses the issue of favoritism.
Theory states that leaders tend to develop closer relationships with some employees, give them more attention.
The theory focuses on the quality of relationship a leader has with followers, and not the actual behavior of the leader.
According to the LMX model, the leader develops a unique relationship with each follower, resulting from the leaders' attempt to assign roles and responsibilities.
Two types of leader exchange relationships are formed;
1. In-Group Exchange: where the leader manages to create a relationship of mutual trust, reciprocal influence and attraction.
2. Out-Group Exchange: where the leader becomes merely a monitor and fails to create trust and respect.
In-group members normally have similar characteristics to that of a leader, like demographic. attitude, and personality characteristics and are perceived as more competent than the out-group.
Higher performance ratings.
Reports greater satisfaction with superiors.
Might be due to self-fulfilling prophecies, which state that people react positively when they are perceived in a positive way.
This is due to employees receiving more input from their leaders, they perform better than others.
In SA context with diversity in mind, this is important.
2. Servant Leadership:
Not focused on power or self-interest, but instead express their leadership by assisting others to unleash their potential and in the process, realize the mission of the organization.
They truly value other people and encourage participation, creativity, self-worth and power sharing.
As a result, followers become wiser, experience wellness and act more autonomously and even become servant-leaders themselves.
*Servant-Leadership Characteristics:
Interpersonal Support
Community Building
Moral Integrity
Servant Leadership has positive influences;
a) Increase corporate citizenship
b) Team potency
c) Commitment to supervisor
d) Self-Efficacy
e) Perceptions of Justice
3. Transformational Leadership:
Also called visionary or charismatic leader.
Demonstrates the crucial role that dynamic leaders play in creating an adaptive organization, which is one that anticipates changes in its environment and responds proactively.
A transformational leader is a futurist who creates a compelling vision that inspires total commitment to, and acceptance of, change by followers.
The influence of the transformational leader makes followers believe that change offers them opportunity to grow and develop to heights previously only dreamed of.
Differs from transactional leadership, in that the leaders offers contingent rewards for goal attainment, and uses punishment for failing to achieve goals.
In transformational leadership, the leader creates a vision and communicates it in such a convincing way that followers personally identify with the vision and pursue it as a personal goal.
They create an "ideal" scenario, and inspire others to strive towards it, give attention to individuals and encourage people to be mindful.
Through intellectual stimulation, the leader makes followers more aware of problems and solutions and radically changes their thinking patterns.
Transformational Leader Behavior:
Create a shared vision (vision is positive image of organization, what it can become and route to it).
Should be exciting, must be real, leader articulates a vision to followers so they buy into it.
Leaders set the bar high for performance of themselves and their followers. Are persistent.
Creates momentum.
Effects on Followers:
Inspires followers to move into action.
They feel excited and identify strongly with the leader and leaders' values.
Self-Esteem and Self-Efficacy increase, develop personal interest in goal accomplishment.
Influence individuals based on relationship of trust.
Linked to principle-centered leadership.
4. Value-Based Leadership:
Leaders live, work and lead in alignment with core values, principles and beliefs which create trust, inspire others and unleash their best potential.
They possess and promote good basic values like compassion, humanity, integrity, equality and trust.
Value based leadership is not about personality traits of leaders, but their underlying value and attitudes, that drive their actions, behaviors and decisions and influence their interactions with others.
The leader serves as a role-model for his followers, and encourages similar values in them.
[*]Is truthful and authentic.
They do not only articulate and model the desired values, but create value-based organizations.
These values are embedded in every part of the organization.
Leaders are trained on all levels, to reflect desired behaviors.
Job applicants assessed before-hand to see if they possess values that fit the organization.
Value-based behavior is then recognized, rewarded and celebrated and becomes a prerequisite for being considered for promotion.
5. Ethical Leadership:
Similar to value-based leaderships, looks at one specific value and that is distinguishing between what is right and wrong, making ethical choices and decisions.
Ethics is a significant factor of effective leadership.
The actions of leaders in the organization to a large extent determine whether an ethical culture will be established, and maintained.
Two pillars of ethical leadership;
1. Moral Person: refers to a leader who displays ethical behavior, does the right thing, makes good decisions and treats others well.
2. Moral Manager: refers to a leader who makes ethical behavior priority in the workplace. The moral manager not only models ethical behavior, also sets ethical standards, principles and values in the workplace and rewards employees.
Model by Marsh, shows 4 channels through which ethical leadership and decision-making are expressed;
1. Mindfulness; obtained through observing, reflecting, demonstrating systems thinking, thinking rationally, dialoguing and questioning.
The implication is, ethical leaders deliberate carefully before they make decisions, to ensure their decisions are ethical.
2. Engagement; obtained through embracing diversity, building relationships and encourage risk-taking. Ethical leaders connect with diverse others in meaningful ways, which broadens their understanding.
3. Authenticity; obtained through personal integrity, self-knowledge and being the author of one's own life. Authenticity gives leaders the courage to adhere to the discipline of mindfulness and connect with others in an emphathetic manner.
4. Sustainment; represents the soil for mindfulness, engagement and authenticity as it connects three factors. For ethical leaders to be sustained, to grow and endure, they need to face reality yet have hope - have a realistic vision, assume a holistic approach to life through a balanced lifestyle. Ethical leaders are mindful about the sustainable outcome of a decision and sustaining relationships.
Marsh discovered that ethical leaders have common aspects, like their values are shaped through significant life experiences, which shows contingencies of life, that encourage them to explore and grow.
Ethics need to be practiced, by being mindful, through engaging with others, embracing diversity and reflecting on the meaning of their lives.
6. Authentic Leadership:
Authenticity refers to the experience followers have of their leader.
Perception that leader is genuine, sincere, open, honest and has integrity.
Also about the leader being true to themselves, and not trying to emulate someone else.
Authentic leaders are deeply aware of their emotions, strengths and weakness, and they process information, objectively without distortion, exaggeration and bias, and their behaviors are aligned with their own values.
They pursue purpose with passion, practice, solid values, lead with the heart, establish enduing relationships and are self-disciplined.
Deeply aware of their purpose, and their flaws, express genuine appreciation or concern.
They see people's potential and urge them to acknowledge that potential in themselves.
To become authentic leaders, one has to reflect on one's journey through life, and the meaning derived from difficult experiences.
Authentic leaders are serious about their own development and elicit truthful feedback to improve themselves.
Are intrinsically motivated, constrain their own need for acclaim and financial reward, perceive their work as a calling.
The integrity of authentic leaders help to sustain organizational effectiveness through the easy and difficult periods.
Authentic leadership behaviors foster psychological capital and trust in groups, which again influence organizational citizenship behavior and performance.
Women Leadership in South Africa:
Generally stereotyped and taken less seriously.
Women often perceived as not assertive enough to handle high-level leadership positions.
Stereotyed as relationship-oriented, unassertive, more flexible and low self-efficacy levels.
Study found that male leaders were found to score higher on performance orientation, collectivism, assertiveness and future orientation. While women managers valued social equality significantly higher than males.
Collectivism associated with women in one-on-one relationships, focus on follower leader commitment relationships, which are interactive and transformational.
Culture is important to consider in women's leadership due to its influence on gender stereotyping, socialization, family relationships and status of women in different countries.
Need to understand the context of each country.
Authentic Leadership in Africa:
Most theories from Europe and America.
People believe African leaders should lead from an Afrocentric baseline and protect the economies, environment and natural resources of the continent and well-being of its people from being exploited.
African leadership; incorporates Afrocentric values and reflects its culture, history, social identities, expectations and experiences.
Start by unraveling Ancient African cultural and philosophical values and wisdom.
Bring them back to Ubuntu.
Ubuntu; we are what we are through our interaction with others.
Traditional African leadership is based on principles of trust, openness and debate. The following key values;
a) Respect for the dignity of others.
b) Group solidarity
c) Teamwork
d) Service to others in a spirit of harmony
e) Interdependence
f) Persuasion as opposed to conventional authoritarian leadership.
At the heart of African leadership, is servant leadership. (perceives everyone as equal, allows participation through open deliberations, and empathetic listening and works towards consensus).
Consensus reached through compromise, persuasion, discussion and accomodation, listening and freedom of speech (EI and servant leadership are traditional models of African models of leadership, recast in modern terminology).
African leaders have these characteristics;
a) Inspire a shared vision, in which all members are shareholders.
b) Create disciples, not followers, through trust, integrity and reliability.
c) Communicate through stories and dialogue - sharing wisdom
d) Build relationships in an informal manner.
e) Lead by example.
f) Encourage the heart by creating a culture of celebration.
Some believe that SA leaders should create a culture, that is a blend of Eurocentric and African culture, and incorporates principles of involvement and empowerment as emphasized in the philosophy of Ubuntu.
Followership:
In the past, followers were perceived and depicted as people who positively reacted to the guidance of leaders.
Misconception; leadership was more important than followership and that performance was merely the result of effective leadership.
Little attention was given to the fact that leaders needs followers to accomplish goals.
Followers are now perceived as potential leaders and as people who lead themselves, thus, self-leadership.
Self-Leadership implies that a person is able to apply self-management and self-discipline in order to become effective, behaviors that are essential to effective leadership.
An effective follower is a person who engages actively in the workplace, and utilizes independent critical thinking.
Effective followers practice self-management and self-responsibility, they are committed to both the organization and an altruistic goal, they invest in own competencies.
Contemporary follower labeled as dynamic, defined as someone who is a responsible steward of their job, effective in managing the relationship with the boss and who practices self-management.
As a result, the leader develops full confidence in the follower, delegates important responsibilities to the follower, and perceives the relationship as a partnership.
Leadership Training and Development:
1. Leadership development strategies focus on the current and future needs of both the leader and the organizations;
Leading organizations identify, future challenges and environments in which their leaders will operate and develop the necessary competencies in their leaders to deal with these challenges.
2. Leadership competencies must be clearly defined;
Develop a leadership competency framework that identifies the competencies that need to develop.
3. Future leaders are identified and earmarked for development;
High flyers are identified from programmes.
4. Leading organizations use multiple and flexible learning interventions;
Shows that leadership is best learnt through through "doing" through practice, or through interventions and programmes.
Through action learning, through teams, through coaching and mentoring are a process of self-discovery.
5. Leadership interventions must provide the organization with a return on investment (ROI) and therefore, the outcomes must be measured;
To determine ROI
To review programme to identify what works and what doesn't, and then, make adjustments.
6. Leadership capability in the organization must match leadership development;
Leadership needs to be enabled.
Conclusion:
Leaders do not operate in a vacuum, but in relation their own personalities and values, the values and personalities of their followers and a complex compendium of situational factors.
Leaders should regularly examine themselves and their behaviors, and the effect that their behaviors have on followers and goal attainment.
Training; the process of systematically teaching employees to acquire and improve job-related skills and knowledge. It is a short term process.
Development; is a long term educational process utilizing an organized and systematic procedure by which managerial personnel learn conceptual and theoretical knowledge for general purpose. It covers not only those activities which improve job performance but also those activities which improves the personality of an employee.
Purpose for Training and Development:
1. Improving quality of workforce:
Training and development programs can help in improving the quality of work produced by the workforce of the organization. Mostly, training is given in a specific area like finance, marketing or HR, which helps in improving the quality of work in that particular area.
2. Enhance employee growth:
By attending these training and development programs, employees are able master the work of their jobs and that's how they develop and grow themselves in a professional way.
3. Prevents obsolescence:
These programs help employees to keep themselves up to date with the new trends in the latest technology, which reduces the chances of termination of the job.
4. Assisting new comer:
These programs help new employees adjust themselves in a new working environment, culture and technology.
5. Bridging the gap between planning and implementation:
It helps organizations to easily achieve their targets and goals that they actually planned for. Employees know their job better and they deliver the quality performance according to needs of top management.
6. Health and Safety Measures:
Training and development program clearly identifies and teaches employees about the different risk involved in their job, the different problems that can arise and how to prevent such problems. This helps to improve the health and safety measures in the company.
Training and Development Programs:
Basic Literacy Skills; reading, numerical and writing skills.
Classroom Training; process of teaching people how to do their jobs by explaining various job requirements and how to meet them.
Apprenticeship Programs; formal training programs both on-the-job and classroom training usually over a long period, often used for training people in the skilled trades.
Cross-cultural Training; systematic way of preparing employees to live and work in another country.
Corporate Universities; centers devoted to handling a company's training needs on a full-time bias.
Executive Training Programs; sessions in which companies systematically attempt to develop their top leaders, either in specific skills or general managerial skills.
E-training; training based on disseminating information online, such as through the internet or a company's internal intranet network.
Principles of Learning; set of principles that make training effective, such as participation, repetition, transfer of training and feedback.
Participation; active involvement in the process of learning, more active participation leads to more effective learning.
Active learning; collection of learner-centered techniques in which individuals are active participants in the learning process.
Transfer of Training; degree to which skills learned during training sessions may be applied to performance of one's job.
Feedback; knowledge of the results of one's behavior.
360-degrees Feedback; practice of collecting performance feedback from multiple sources at a variety of organizational levels.
Training Effectiveness; personality (self-efficacy, internal locus of control, high cognitive ability) training climate (applying newly learned skills, environment to apply skills).
Developing an Employee:
1. Identify Areas of Development:
Start by looking at the job characteristics, skills variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback regarding the job. Assess how the employee is performing his job in relation to the five core job characteristics. Comparing the job characteristics with employee qualities.
Analyze your performance, review data with reporting and analysis features hence making it simple to spot areas of strength and weakness.
2. Define, set and manage goals:
These goals should be relevant to any issues they may be having or weak points they need to improve on. In addition, these goals should be documented in one central location so that the employee can refer back to them throughout the year to keep them fresh and top of mind.
3. Establish a plan of action:
Based on the areas that need development, the employer will identify the types of training that will be used to attend to these areas of development. Establishing a plan of action can include anything that will help employees strive to obtain their goals. Putting together a targeted training or education plan is another way to achieve goals and facilitate the overall development plan.
4. Follow-up and Re-assess:
The follow-up is quite possibly the most fundamental step in the triumph of any development plan. If a manager does not take the time to follow up with their employees on how they are doing, then your development plan can quickly fall to pieces and become completely redundant. It's important to "check-in" every once and awhile, and closely monitor progress and how your employees are getting on.
Performance Management is a process that directs the behaviors of people in the organization towards achieving strategic goals.
Managers often confused performance appraisal, with performance management.
Performance management is the day-to-day management of people, while performance appraisal is a discrete event that most organizations perform once or twice a year to evaluate employees' performance.
Definitions of Performance Management:
Performance management is a system consisting of interlocking elements designed to achieve high performance. Within that system performance, management is carried out through the process of planning, goal setting, monitoring, providing feedback, analysing and assessing performance, reviewing, dealing with under-performance and coaching/
Performance management is an ongoing communication process, undertaken in partnership between an employee and their immediate supervisor, that involves establishing clear expectations and understanding about the following;
a) The employee's essential job functions
b) How job performance will be measured
c) What barriers hinder performance and how they can be minimized and eliminated
These two perspectives on performance management clarify the objective of performance management, which is to improve results at the level of the individual, the team and the organization; the process is owned and driven by line managers.
The active involvement of the leader of the organization in performance management is a prerequisite for any successful performance management.
What is Performance?
Performance is what people say and do, like when a job pays someone to do physical work.
Performance management is shaping what people say and do to the needs of the organization.
In effective organizations, people engage in activities that service the customers of the organization.
All performance starts with a thought.
Importance emphasized on setting expectations, good managers will indicate the performance that is required, and will follow up consistently.
To deliver effective performance, one needs willing, able and empowered employees.
Factors influencing individual performance;
Relating to the individual;
a) Commitment to the organization
b) Employee engagement
c) Selection
d) Personality
e) Attitude
f) Skills
g) Ability
h) Knowledge
i) Motivation
Relating to the organization;
a) Leadership
b) Structure of working units
c) Systems and procedures
d) Enabling support
e) Empowerment
f) Opportunity to perform
g) Job design
h) Rewards (pay and benefits)
i) Alignment between strategy and individual performance
We have to be aware of factors that are an obstacle to effective performance.
The Development of Performance Management Systems:
A performance management system is a systematic process with a built-in review process that formally documents the goals and objectives of each employee.
Good performance management means that each person will have goals and measures that re linked directly to the organizations' strategy.
The process of developing individual measures starts by taking the strategy of the organization, and cascading the strategic objectives down through the different departments.
Each person in said department should be assisted by means of a joint-goal setting session, to set their goals, and the associated measure.
Process referred to as alignment.
The alignment process will identify the critical success factors and key performance areas for the organization.
Each person in the organization has key result areas, as well as key performance indicators, which are the measures used to judge the employees' performance. Part of this process, is to identify gaps in the individual employee's competence.
Simple rule, employee's performance CANNOT exceed their competence.
The gaps identified, should then be addressed through a personal development plan for each employee.
1. Performance Management versus Performance Appraisal;
Performance appraisal, is for most part, a rating exercise.
Rate employees on a scale, which showcases their overall performance.
2. Performance Management at the Individual Level:
The starting point of performance management is setting goals and measures. These go under several acronyms;
The first step in performance management, is to ensure that employees understand what is expected of them. Done through thorough discussion, to understand that the employees gets it.
2. Plan to Facilitate performance;
There are many instances where the managers' intervention may be necessary because the employee does not have the authority or the resources to make things happen. Though, the manager can talk to senior management for special conditions, and in this way, facilitate the performance of the employee.
3. Monitor performance;
Management by wandering around, just to walk around and find out how things are going. Basically seeing if the employees are doing what they were told, or following the objectives set for them. Frequency of monitoring depends on the environment.
4. Provide Feedback;
Serves two purposes, one, allows manager to provide consequences for performance and two, to direct the efforts of the employee if necessary.
Positive consequence, like praise or recognition, or reprimanding if its weak.
Feedback also allows people to improve their performance, by having flaws pointed out.
5. Coach, counsel and support;
If monitoring reveals a problem, coaching may be necessary.
This will consist of discussing the desired performance, and modelling the performance for the employee, ask them to perform and then give feedback until it is at required level.
Problem may be due to personal or interpersonal problems, manager has to counsel employee t offer solutions to overcome these problems.
Needs manager to be empathetic to employees, support their stuff and allow them to know that manager has confidence in them.
GROW model of coaching;
1. GOAL; clarify what they want to achieve (manager with employee)
2. REALITY; reality check, manager asks for evidence of understanding, what is happening now.
3. OPTIONS; what option is best to achieve the outcome, and explore them.
4. WILL; help employee think through the steps what will be necessary to achieve the objectives, to devise a workable plan and commit to the next steps in a concrete way.
Build employee engagement.
6. Coaching versus Mentor-ship;
Coaching is a process that managers engage in to improve an employee's performance, and this is often done by an immediate superior.
Mentoring, on the other hand, is a process where the mentor imparts wisdom to the mentee. Mentoring is normally done by someone who is at least one level above the mentee's immediate superior.
7. Recognize good performance;
Behavior that is positively reinforced, is likely to recur, while behavior that is punished or for which there are no consequences, is less likely to occur.
Follow rules of Skinner's Reinforcement Theory.
8. Unsatisfactory performance;
Employees should be told when their performance is unsatisfactory, from there, a guideline should be followed.
The process includes;
a) Ensure that they know their performance is unsatisfactory.
b) See their past performance, if it was good, there might be sudden issues which manager can help with, or assist with.
c) Revisit objectives, see if they understand what is required.
d) Agree on a performance improvement plan, ensure that all steps are understood, must undergo training.
e) Agree on process for a follow up, and review of improvement plan, and discuss the next steps in a disciplinary procedure.
f) Record agreement in writing, employee gets copy.
g) Monitor performance in terms of the agreement, whether next steps will be taken or normal performance management will resume.
The Performance Management Meeting:
Performance management cycle requires regular meetings to discuss performance. Manager will meet with subordinates to discuss informal agenda along the lines of;
1. Review priorities in terms of objectives, tasks, standards, etc.
2. Provide feedback on performance
3. Recognize good performance
4. Re-prioritize objectives and tasks
5. Ask, "What can I do to help?"
6. Set the agenda and date for the next performance meeting.
Recording what is agreed is vital, to hold subordinates accountable for performance, creates a record to go by, and refer to.
Also keeps them in line about objectives, and keeps objectives realistic, due to timeframe, etc.
If each individual's objectives are linked to the strategy of the organization, there is alignment of individual effort and strategy implementation.
1. Performance agreements;
Documentation is necessary to enforce the performance management system. This takes the form of a performance agreement. A performance agreement will detail;
a) What the person should contribute
b) Principal accountabilities
c) Measurement indicators - how to know whether the results have been achieved
d) Training and Development requirements
e) The process of managing performance
2. Training and Development needs;
What gaps need to be closed (refer to Unit 13 for types of training).
3. Performance management is about relationships;
The overarching reason for the failure of theoretically sound performance management systems is because managers are not willing to do what they system requires them to do.
The heart of it; is the performance discussion, where they meet and talk about issues relating to performance. Entails confronting problems.
If manager feels his relationship with subordinate will suffer due to speaking openly and honestly about problems, objectives will not be achieved.
Pay for Performance:
Pay is merely one of the factors influencing performance.
For performance-related pay to work, the following should be considered;
1. Developing reward policies and practices that support the achievement of business goals.
2. Providing awards that attract, retain and motivate staff, and help to develop a high performance culture.
3. Maintain competitive rates of pay.
4. Rewarding people according to their contribution.
5. Recognizing the value of all staff who are making an effective contribution, not just exceptional performers.
6. Allowing a reasonable degree of flexibility in the operation of reward process, and in the choice of benefits by employees.
7. Devolving more responsibility for reward decisions to line managers.
Name Morrigan Nickname Witch of the Wilds Gender Female Age Unknown Clan Kisei
L O O K S
You must be registered for see images
You must be registered for see images
You must be registered for see images
Morrigan can be described as being slim, dark and beautiful. Her fragile build is accentuated by her good looks. Morrigan's eyes stand out, as they shine with a dark amber like color, much akin to that of a cat. Morrigan carries her hair in tied manner, with several bangs falling over her face. Her face is stern, and sophisticated, while her nose is strong and her lips, full. Morrigan's attire consists of tattered yet well placed, robes.
These not only indicate her Kisei origins, being attributed to witches, but also accentuate her style. Morrigan, while oblivious to the customs of the outside world, has grown a liking to a specific style of clothing. Usually considered revealing, Morrigan likes this style, and considers it useful in battle to have some leeway for close combat and movement. The outfit consists of a black/dark purple robe, a large necklace and different types of jewelry across her neck, as well as some Raven's feathers on the shoulder. A black brassiere can be seen beneath it, scantily covering her bosom, while she wears a black leather skirt, adorned with leather belts and other accessories. She wears black animal skin boots, and an assortment of other jewelry on her person.
P E R S O N A L I T Y
You must be registered for see images
You must be registered for see images
You must be registered for see images
Morrigan carries herself rather seriously, or so it may seem on the surface. Her worldview is sarcastic, and pessimistic. She jokes about many things, and has a cold exterior, letting very few get close to the real her. Despite her constant down putting comments, Morrigan does have a softer side, though rarely seen. Due to her isolation as a child, Morrigan developed an odd pattern of speaking, almost archaic in nature. She uses this to her advantage of course, being an expert in deception as well as illusions. She is hard willed, strong and a powerful force to be reckoned with. Morrigan likes adventuring alone, though does not mind company, every now and then, if they can keep up with her unique form of banter.
V I L L A G E ∾ I N F O R M A T I O N
Village of Birth ∾
You must be registered for see links
WSE Clan ∾ N/A
You must be registered for see images
R A N K & C H A K R A ∾ I N F O R M A T I O N
Ninja Rank
Jounin
Specialty
Genjutsu
Mahou
Sound
Medical Ninjutsu
Warrior Monks Way
Elements
Fire
Lightning
Water
Earth
Wind
Sound
Mahou
Mawscape
Chloroform
Liquid Nitrogen
Draconium
Yin Release
Ninjutsu
Ninjutsu
Genjutsu
Taijutsu
Kenjutsu
Medical Ninjutsu
Fuuinjutsu
Kaito's Taijutsu
Summoning
Fox Summoning and Ninjutsu
Snake Summoning and Ninjutsu
Custom Fightning Styles
The Warrior Monk's Way
Impetus of Untouchable
Way of Barries
Hidden Rope Art
Surreal Palm
You must be registered for see links
G E N J U T S U
Being master in the art of Genjutsu, and having been trained by various scholars throughout her life, Morrigan has the ability to utilize Genjutsu with the formation of a single hand seal. Morrigan has traveled far and wide, gathering and collecting Genjutsu, and she enjoys showing them off whenever she can.
M A H O U
Morrigan, like her fellow Kisei, is able to use Mahou. However, being particularly gifted at it, as well as being the Head of House Slytherin, Morrigan is able to cast spells and techniques non-verbally, using only her wand to cast them. Her wand is made of Rosewood, and Thestral Hair, allowing her to specialize in the Transfiguration and Chloroform non-verbally and only with the wand. She also carries with her some Potions, and is a well known Legillimens, always reading the minds of those she comes across.
( Pōshon ) - Potions
Type: Supplementary
Rank: A - S
Range: Short
Chakra: N/A
Damage: N/A
Description: Potions are magical mixtures commonly brewed in cauldrons and used to create a number of effects on the drinker. Potions range in effects and nature and in difficulty as well. Potions are brewed from ingredients with magical properties. Potions can be used as medicine, lethal poison, or give the drinker any effect from strength enhancement to immunity to flames. Potions are not necessarily used by drinking, as some can be applied by physical contact or create an effect simply by being created. Potions have to be taken in the right dosages or used a limited amount of times to avoid otherwise disastrous effects. All potions are created prior to battle and carried in vials either on the Kisei's person, or can be summoned to them in battle via Summoning charm or Fuuinjutsu.
A rank
Hufflepuff's Elixir
An elixir of a golden, yellow color, this potions increases the user's ability to control mahou and it's power. By ingesting this, the user gains the ability to augment his spells by +20 by adding that level of chakra to each spell used, adding a green, fiery effect to each projectile/stream style spell, causing second degree burns to each spell. Due to the increased ability to control their mahou, the user is also able to use mahou up to mid range without the use of his wand, however all other requirements are still needed. This potion's effects last up to 3 turns. However, the heightened control of his mahou comes at a cost; after the effects wear off, the user will notice an inability in using high ranking spells ( S rank and higher ) for 3 turns. This potion can only be ingested 2 times in total and once every three turns.
Ravenclaw's Elixir
A blueish elixir that is ideal for stealth purposes, upon ingesting this spell, the user is able to use his mahou to perfectly conceal their form as well as their chakra and the chakra within other jutsu used by the user. This allows him to have a near perfect hidden form, not even able to be sensed outside of basic senses. What this means is, the user becomes chakraless to the opponent, unsensable by even the highest form of chakra Sensory. This extends to jutsu and spells used by the user, making them seemingly devoid of chakra. This effect lasts 4 turns and must wait 3 turns before reusing after it expires and can be used up to 2 times.
S rank
Gryffindor's Elixir
A potion that appears a red color, this elixir siphons chakra and strength from each spell, lowering it's rank and power. This siphoned energy is used as a way to augment the user's defensive abilities, allowing him to tank C ranks initially. For every spell used after this potion has been ingested, it will lose 1 rank in power (20 dmg). However, this one rank reduction will be able to be applied to the user's body, allowing him to tank one jutsu of a higher rank, starting with C ranks and increasing by 20 for each spell, eventually tanking up to 100 damage. However, this does not apply to jutsu that do not physically hit the target, such as Genjutsu. Should an attack land that does not meet the level of durability the user has, his defensive capabilities will not suffer any reduction, only if it is met with equal damage or higher. This potions effects last up to 4 turns. However, the siphoned mahou comes at a cost; after the effects wear off, the user will not be able to utilize S rank jutsu and higher nor any magic for 3 turns. This potion can only be ingested 2 times in total, and once every three turns.
Slytherin's Elixir
A purely empowering elixir, upon ingesting this green liquid, the user will notice his mahou being used to aid his physical form significantly; his physical strength raised highly, the user becomes capable of dealing higher degrees of damage (+20), as well as a speed increase. His speed increases to the equivalent to a user in 2nd gate, he becomes a physical tank, able to survive physical damage up to B rank as well as resist jutsu that physically binds and restricts his movement. However, for all his physical splendor, he sacrifices a lot in exchange; unable to use energy based attacks above S rank and only 3 fields of magic up to A rank, his defense to these likewise takes a harsh fall, each energy based jutsu dealing an additional 40 damage on the user's body. Lasting for 3 turns, after it ends the user's speed is halfed, and his physical strength halved for two turns. After ingesting, the user cannot use again for up to 3 turns and usable 2 times in all.
Note: Usable only by members of the Kisei Clan.
Note: Heads of Houses and up can have up to 4 potions at any time while other members can have at max 3 potions. These potions must be mentioned within the user's bio or mentioned at the start of an event/battle if they have yet to be placed within the bio.
Note: The user is unable to use more than one type of potion per turn.
Note: Members cannot use Potions from their Rival House, meaning Gryffindor and Slytherin cannot use each other's potions and same for Hufflepuff and Ravenclaw.
Note: After using a potion, the user must wait until effects wear off before using any other one.
Note: Specific drawbacks for each potion are listed within the jutsu.
( Legilimency ) - Legilimency
Type: Supplementary
Rank: B - A
Range: Short - Long
Chakra: 20 - 30 ( -5 per turn for B rank, -10 for A rank )
Damage: N/A
Description: An innate and somewhat passive ability, Legilimency is the act of magically navigating through the many layers of a person's mind and correctly interpreting one's findings. Legilimens ( users of Legilimency ) are able to detect if a person is lying, as well as delve into their thoughts, emotions, and memories if their target is not skilled in blocking their minds. In most cases, this is not a harmful or detrimental ability, allowing the user a way to predict and understand the opponent's movements and actions with the utmost clarity. While it is similar to reading minds, it should be noted that Legilimency is not as simple as the muggle art of mind-reading; mind-reading assumes that one is simply eavesdropping on the thoughts currently running through the head of another. Legilimency, however, requires the wizard to navigate and move through the various areas of the brain. In it's lowest levels ( B rank ), the user is able to utilize it in a way similar to "mind reading", allowing the user to 'read' the opponent's current thoughts and ones related to them at that moment. This is the basic level of Legilimency and once active, lasts until the user ends it's usage. With training and power, this ability and range increases. At A rank power the user becomes capable of actual navigating the target's mind and it's many layers. This is as harmless as the B rank variant. However, despite all of this, this ability isn't without drawback. The A-Rank version requires the target to be within mid-range while the B-Rank version works up to long-range (one landmark for normal members, two for House Heads and three for the Headmaster).
Note: Although the B rank version is a passive ability honed when the user reaches Year 6, he cannot use the A rank and higher versions without actually actively using this jutsu.
Note: A rank usage can allow one to simply navigate the mind.
Note: A rank usage can only be used once every four turns, lasting 3 turns each usage and requiring a two turn usage break in between A rank and higher usages.
Note: Must place within bio stating the user is a Legilimens.
M E D J U T S U
Having trained in the Medical Arts, Morrigan was able to utilize Medical techniques, as well heal allies and herself should she get hurt. Morrigan carries with her some Medical based pills too, which can be used at any time.
(Heishi Piru) Soldier Pills
Type: Supplementary
Description and Background:Soldier pills are a more combat aimed variation of the military ration pill. Upon ingesting the pill, your chakra supply doubles, but burns at a greatly accelerated rate due to the "pressure" involved. Upon ingesting the pill, any ninjutsu you use gains +15 damage and any taijutsu gains +10 for 4 turns. Upon expiry of the effects you must use an extra 10 chakra for every technique afterwards for 5 turns due to the fatigue setting in meaning you have to force your techniques more, and thereby adding to the toll it takes on your body. These pills are a basic medicine medical ninjas use in combat and are essentially black small round pills which are swallowed and absorbed through the mucosa in the stomach, made off of various ingredients and medicinal herbs as well as stimulants
Description of Side Effects:
-Upon using a second pill in a conflict the additional chakra cost after expiry rises to +30 until healed
-Upon taking a third pill, the medical ninja will suffer cardiac arrest upon expiry of the pill.
(Hyorogan) Military Ration Pills
Type: Healing
Description and Background:Military Rations Pills (???, Hyorogan) are special pills that replenish one's chakra and nourish the body. It is made up of powerful stimulants and nutrients, said to allow the user to keep fighting for three days and three nights without rest. Replenishes 50 percent of the user's maximum chakra supply per pill taken, along with pumping stimulants into the body to alleviate tiredness. These pills are a basic medicine medical ninjas use or distribute in combat and are essentially dark brown small round pills which are swallowed and absorbed through the mucosa in the stomach.
Description of Side Effects:
-Taking two pills in a conflict results in hyper-stimulation of the cardiovascular system. The users heart rate and blood pressure increase to the point they become painful for 6 turns after taking the pill.
-Taking 3 pills in a conflict pushes the user's cardiovascular system to breaking point, resulting in heart failure after 4 turns.
(Ketsueki no Zoka Piru) Blood Replenishing Pill
Type: Healing
Description and Background: Contains high concentrations of amino acids, iron and mitosis inducing enzymes designed to turbo boost the production of erythrocytes from haematopoetic stem cells in the human body. This pill alleviates and cancels the symptoms of blood loss after one turn. These pills are a basic medicine medical ninjas use or administer in combat and are essentially dark red small round pills which are swallowed and absorbed through the mucosa in the stomach
Description of Side Effects:
-Taking 2 pills leads to increased blood pressure, and increased likelihood of blood clots forming, specially through trauma.
-Taking 3 pills over stresses the cardiovascular system and causes aneurysm after 4 turns.
S U M M O N I N G ∾ N I N J U T S U
Having mastered Snakes at a young age, Morrigan is able to summon Snakes with ease, she carries a Snake tattoo on her left arm. On the right arm, Morrigan carries the tattoo of the Foxes, which she owns. Morrigan also has a special breed of Snakes, which replaces the normal species.
Type: Supplementary/Defensive
Rank: D-S
Range: N/A
Chakra Cost: 10-40 (Depends on rank of summons)
Damage Points: N/A
Description:
The Crotalinae are a selective species of snake summonings which were bred and assigned only to the greater of the snake contract signers. These species of Snake summonings specifically had evolved over time to have harder, more adaptable scales covering their body and an enhanced pit organ that naturally heightened their abilities to sense. This heightened sensing used through the pit organ seemingly was developed not only for predatory reasons but also for defensive measures against other predators. The sensing was exactly like the basics of any other snake, just taken to a higher level. Meaning they could sense minute vibrations up to a certain distance around them and even had an infrared optic map of the world before them. Typically, most snakes of the Crotalinae subfamily had natural infrared maps overlaid through their optic tectum, but with the Selective species being bred into existence it was heightened to the point of even being able to put this to use in the pitch black and in the darkest of times. The facial pit actually visualizes thermal radiation using the same optical principles as a pinhole camera, wherein the location of a source of thermal radiation/heat is determined by the location of the radiation on the membrane of the heat pit. The resolution on the infrared mapping through the heat pits has a very high resolution, which in turn allows the snakes to sense different levels of heat and cooler areas in extreme detail. Besides the sensing, their scales made for a greater form of defense, allowing them to survive harsher conditions and more damage than an average snake summoning. Not only were the scales on Crotalinae found to be more thicker and tougher than average, but they also held a passive ability to blend in with their environment by changing colors and becoming camouflaged. This coupled with their sensing made them very dangerous predators that were even able to escape other predator's perception if they didn't have some higher form of tracking or sensing.
Note: Must be posted within the bio or in the beginning of a fight.
Note: The Crotalinae Species can be summoned as generic snakes like the ones summoned in techniques such as: Summoning Technique: Giant Snakes, Summoning Technique: Three Headed Snakes, or Just the normal generic summoning technique, though instead of being normal snakes, they'd be of the Crotalinae subfamily. They won't take the place of those techniques, instead the user uses the generic summoning technique to summon Crotalinae, having to post this technique along with it but not costing an extra move.
Note: The sensing of minute vibrations and infrared mapping spans as far as an 100m radius, with larger snakes being able to sense the furthest due to their larger pit organs. Snakes under 40m in length can only sense up to 50m whole anything bigger can sense up to the maximum reach.
Note: The evolved scales allow the Crotalinae Species to take up to 20 more damage than average snake summonings of their rank. This is due to the thickness and tougher nature of the scaling covering the Crotalinae.
F U U I N J U T S U
Another skill Morrigan learned in her life time. Fuuinjutsu, mastered with ease and upon doing so, she carries several seals on his person, which are easily utilized in battle. They are as follows;
(Fuuin: Akuma to no dansu) - Sealing Technique: Dance With The Devil
Type: Supplementary
Rank: A
Range: Short
Chakra cost: 30
Damage points: N/A
Description: The user will have a seal placed on their body with the Kanji for a specific element. The seal can be passively activated in battle and it’s activation will restrict the user to a certain element (as well as the one’s it’s comprised of. In exchange for limiting the user to certain element(s), the user's techniques of the remaining elements will gain one rank and in the case of S-Ranks and above they will gain +20 damage. In the case of defensive and supplementary techniques, they will become capable of defending against techniques with 20 more damage points (only applies to S-Ranks and above). This counts as a passive boost rather than an active one due to the nature of the seal. To clearly illustrate the seal’s use in battle, if the user restricted themselves to Steel Release, they would still have access to Earth, Fire and any CE combinations of the aforementioned elements (elements that use solely earth, solely fire or Earth and Fire). Alternatively, the user can create the seal in the middle of a battle but this usage can only be used once. This usage is fast enough to be used in the same time-frame as the subsequent technique. Once activated, this technique lasts until canceled.
Notes:
-Can only be taught by Detective L
-Must be stated in user’s biography and can only be activated once per battle/event
-Alternative use can only be used once per battle
(Fuinjutsu: Jo Koken) – Sealing Technique: Imperial Guardian]
Type: Defensive
Rank: A
Range: Short
Chakra Cost: 30
Damage Points: N/A
Description: This technique is composed of a sealing formula that remains active until triggered, this sealing formula bears the Kanji letter of "?" or in literal meaning "guard" which is located on the user's upper arm. This sealing formula erects an invisible barrier that's made around the user at all times but does not actually cost the user a move until it activates, the barrier works by detecting the chakra of a fast incoming technique and deflects it, causing it to dissipate and leave the user unharmed, the barrier's deflection ability is only triggered by a fast moving technique, basically a technique that can't be tracked by normal eye sight and requires at least a Sharingan or similar means to track, the barrier that's around the user detects the speed once the technique collides with the chakra released from the barrier that's around the user and the sealing formula glows suddenly, causing the barrier that surrounds the user to repel the incoming technique within short range of the user.
Note: Can only be trigger twice per battle.
Note: Can guard against up to an S-rank technique.
Note: The user can use it twice counting as two moves per turn and using +30 chakra with each usage to guard against a forbidden ranked technique, this can only be used once.
Note: No Fuinjutsu techniques in the same turn.
(Fuuin: Kanbatsu Jakunen Metsubou) - Sealing Technique: Law of the Logia
Type: Supplementary/Defensive
Rank: A
Range: Short
Chakra cost: N/A (-30 on activation)
Damage points: N/A
Description: The user will have a seal on their body with the Kanji for a specific element and it will lay dormant until the user is physically struck, be it by an attack, weapon or an opponent. Whenever the user is physically interacted with (e.g. punched, stabbed, shot), their body will instantly exhibit all of the properties of the chosen element. This doesn't mean their body merely has the properties of the element but rather when interacted with the targeted part(s) of the body will passively dissipate into storm energy or harden into steel (effect depends on the chosen element). If for example the user is stabbed and they turn into storm energy, the bladed weapon would merely phase through their energy-composed body and leave them unaffected. On the other side of the scale, if the user's body hardens into steel then the attack will simply do them no harm. After the attack or strike has passed through them, their body will automatically revert itself to it's normal appearance. Since this technique usually only applies to specific parts of the body, any unconverted portions of the user's body can still be moved/controlled/used as normal. While in this form, the user can only use the element they transformed into, the element's it's composed of and any combination of the aforementioned element as well as any non-elemental abilities. This technique enables the user to defend against A-Ranks and below of neutral elements (B-Ranks and below for weaknesses, S-Ranks and below for strengths). If the user is struck with an attack that will neutralize their transformation, the two cancel one another out and the user reverts to their original form unharmed. If the user is struck with an attack that overpowers their transformation, the user's body reverts to it's original form and sustains the remaining damage (after the collision of techniques). The only exception to this rule is if the two chosen elements have no sort of interaction with one another (e.g. Fire and Lightning), in which case rank differences will not matter. Regardless of how the user is hit, this can be a full body or partial transformation (depends on the user’s choice). Should they be struck by a physical attack capable of cancelling out their transformation (e.g. a sword streaming nagashi), the sword will remain inside them on reversion and they’ll be impaled by the blade.
Notes:
-Can only be taught by Detective L.
-This seal can only activate twice per battle and lasts one turn
-This technique must be stated in user's biography
-Follows elemental strengths and weaknesses
-User must possess the given element and it cannot be a CE
-Happens passively but counts as one of the user's moves per turn
(Ototon/Fuuinjutsu: Kodoku no Boumei) - Sound/Sealing Technique: Solitude of the Exile
Type: Defensive
Rank: S
Range: N/A
Chakra cost: N/A (-40 on each activation)
Damage points: N/A
Description: The user will have two seals on their body with the Kanji for "Solitude" infused with their sound chakra. The seals are located inside the ear canal (must be stated in the user's biography) and will activate automatically upon any chakra infused sound (not just the element) or technique entering the user's ear. The seal will then emit a sound wave with an amplitude opposite that of the invasive technique so that destructive interference occurs and the two cancel each other out. The seals will maintain the frequency for as long as the sound is being heard/transmitted by the opponent, allowing this jutsu to counter not only momentary techniques but those which are sustained or prolonged. This technique's use lies only in preventing chakra-infused sounds being heard and as such it's use is largely limited to countering Sound Genjutsu and similar abilities. The activation of this technique is instant (but still counts as a move) so it can intercept and cancel sound-based techniques before they're heard. As such, the user is free to perform techniques in the same time-frame (even if the seals are still actively transmitting to cancel a sustained frequency). These seals cancel chakra-infused sounds before they can affect the body by stopping them as they pass through the ear canal and so it essentially prevents illusions from taking effect. This means seals which activate upon foreign chakra entering the user's body will not be triggered. This technique can only counter one technique at a time and only one technique per use (counters up to and including S-Ranks).
Notes:
-Can only be taught by Detective L
-Usable twice per battle
-No S-Rank or above Fuuin or Sound in the user's same and next turn
-The seal itself is A-Ranked
(Fuuin: Bachi no Fukyuu) - Sealing Technique: Bane of the Immortal
Type: Defensive/Supplementary
Rank: A
Range: Short
Chakra: 30 (-10 chakra per turn)
Damage: N/A
Description: The user will have a seal on their body with the Kanji for "Eternal". The seal lies dormant and is passively activated whenever the opponent tries to seal or drain the user's chakra and/or abilities. The seal will instantly release an intangible barrier that surrounds the user's body like an armour. Any abilities which act externally such as the canon techniques Multiple Infinite Embraces or Living Barrier will be unable to affect anything inside the barrier, namely the user's body. Seals which act internally will first have their chakra be absorbed by the barrier (happens instantly and so before they can come into effect) and once erected, the barrier will prevent any further insertion of chakra while active. The seal is self-sustaining and will involuntary leech chakra from the user's body. This is for the express purpose of maintaining this technique even when the user can't use or mold chakra. This is possible as the chakra still exists within the user as it is equivalent of their very life-force. This can counter S-Rank and below sealing techniques. This cannot be activated manually and will only ever activate under the aforementioned conditions. It lasts for four turns or until the ability attempting to seal or drain the user's chakra or abilities is no longer active, whichever is longer.
Note: Can only activate a maximum of thrice per battle
Fuuin: Bachi no Kindachi) - Sealing Technique: Damocles, The Curse of Kings
Type: Defensive/Supplementary
Rank: S
Range: Short - Long
Chakra: 40 (80 chakra for double usage)
Damage: N/A
Description: The user will have four seals on their body (must be stated in the biography) with the Kanji for “Curse” that can be passively activated (instant but still counts as a move) whenever the opponent uses a technique. The seal will will release an intangible barrier that expands outwards in all directions. The barrier instantly reaches long-range in every direction and serves to absorb chakra from the given technique in order to weaken it by a quarter . The amount of chakra absorbed is proportional to the power of the technique but one thing that remains the same is that the remaining technique will fall to three-quarters it's original power i.e. a 120 damage technique would fall to 90 damage (Forbidden Rank). The barrier is destroyed soon after coming into contact with the technique if it exceeds a traditional S-Rank in power but not before it leeches a quarter of it’s chakra in order to weaken it by the same degree. The user can instead activate two barriers rather than one to reduce the targeted technique to half it’s original power rather than a quarter. This will count as two of the user’s three moves per turn. This means this technique does not counter other jutsu in itself but rather aids the user in countering more powerful techniques by weakening them. Due to the barrier’s intangibility, it will can work on solid techniques as well as liquids, gases and energy-based techniques. It will also only shatter against non-physical techniques due to their ability to clash with the intangible barrier. The reason this seal needs to be passively activated (still counts as a move) is so the user can use a technique in the same-timeframe to counter the opponent's weakened jutsu. This technique can be used thrice per battle, be it three usages of the single version, three usages of the double version or any variation/combination of the two.
Note: Can only be used three times per battle
Note: No Fuuinjutsu techniques can be used in the user's same and next turn (when single version is used)
Note: No Fuuinjutsu techniques can be used in the user's same and next two turns (when double version is used)
You must be registered for see images
B A C K G R O U N D ∾ I N F O R M A T I O N
You must be registered for see images
You must be registered for see images
You must be registered for see images
Morrigan's childhood is quite vague. She grew up in the wilds with her "mother", Flemeth. An extremely powerful Kisei, however, an apostate. A runaway Mage. Morrigan grew up having a rather odd relationship with Flemeth. Casually used as bait for capturing travelers and shinobi alike, Morrigan became independent at a young age.
Morrigan utilized these opportunities to sharpen her skills, as well as her Mahou. A skilled user of Transfiguration and the Dark Arts, Morrigan normally transformed herself into a massive beast to maul those unfortunate enough to try and attack her, or into a spider, to simply scare individuals. She also utilized the Dark Arts for the purposes of torture and fun. Several years passed this way, and Flemeth taught Morrigan all she knows.
When she was old enough, Morrigan decided to leave the wilds behind, and discover the world for herself, while also learning more about "Muggles" and their way of doing things. Of course, this didn't mean that she would shy away from her sadistic tendencies..
O T H E R
Scientific Tools: N/A
Artifacts: N/A
T H E M E ∾ S O N G ∾ & B A C K G R O U N D ∾ M U S I C
Basic Information Name: Sasuke Uchiha Nickname: N/A Gender: Male Age: Unknown Clan: Uchiha
Looks: Sasuke is a fair-skinned ninja who has onyx eyes and black chin-length hair. His hair is spiky in the back with bangs that lengthen as the story progresses. As a young child, his bangs hung above his eyes. Later, they would hang on both sides of his face to roughly frame his cheeks and later again return to their original style. Sasuke is considered quite handsome as most girls near his age become very infatuated with him. At the beginning of Part I, Sasuke's clothing consisted of the traditional Uchiha clothing: a blue, short-sleeved shirt with a high collar and the Uchiha crest on the back and white arm warmers, which he stopped wearing after the Chūnin Exams, along with white shorts. In the last stage of the Chūnin Exams, he wore a black, one-pieced version of this outfit with many small arm-belts adorning his left arm and similar bands around both legs. As the story progressed, the Uchiha symbol became smaller and smaller until after he defeats his brother.
Initially, Sasuke wore a short blue-clothed forehead protector with the Konoha symbol on the metallic plate. After suffering a second defeat from Itachi, Sasuke stopped wearing it for some time. He put it back on during the latter half of his battle with Naruto at the Valley of the End, only to let it drop off at the end. Since then, Sasuke hasn't worn a forehead protector.
In Part II, Sasuke has grown noticeably taller over the two and a half years and more muscular. He was first shown wearing a white long-sleeved shirt, similar in appearance to the lavender long-sleeved shirt worn by Kimimaro and which was open at the torso, with a smaller version of the Uchiha crest on his collar. He wore dark blue pants with a blue cloth hanging from halfway up his stomach to his knees. He also wore black arm-guards that covered his forearms and stretched up to reach his upper biceps. He also wore a purple rope belt around his waist, tied in a bow, in which he carries his sword.
After battling Deidara, he switched to a sleeveless dark grey shirt. His arm-guards were also removed, and he started wearing bandages on his wrists, under which he wore special armbands with seals where he stores various shuriken. He also wore a black cloak with this.
During his early childhood, Sasuke wore a simple long-sleeved black shirt with a raised collar and the Uchiha crest on the back, and black shorts (white in the anime). When Sasuke joined Itachi on his mission to capture the wild boar, Sasuke was wearing the ANBU uniform.
Personality:When he was a child, Sasuke was very kind, loving towards his parents and older brother and respectful to his fellow clansmen as well as his teachers. He was even very proud of being Itachi's brother and Fugaku's son — famous for being devoted protectors of Konoha, and he desired to emulate them. His original dream was to join the Konoha Military Police Force when he grew up, like his father and as such greatly sought his father's approval and acknowledgement of his abilities. After Itachi massacred the clan, Sasuke's ideals and personality changed drastically and he became cold, indifferent, cruel, cynical, somewhat arrogant, unreasonable and devoted the next nine years of his life to kill Itachi.
When first introduced to Team Kakashi, Sasuke displayed great indifference to his team-mates as well as others. Feeling superior to all of them, including his teacher, Sasuke was unwilling to cooperate with any of his team-mates, as he felt they would provide him no aid in furthering his ambition to kill his brother; this attitude affected his grades in the Academy after losing his clan, he had the lowest score in cooperation and second lowest in assertiveness. However over time, as he interacted more with his team mates on a day-to-day basis, he began to see them as somewhat of a family and Sasuke started to lose some of his hatred, caring more about his team than his revenge. Sasuke even admitted to Naruto that he almost thought that he must forget about his revenge and instead focus on Team 7. However, Orochimaru branded Sasuke with the Cursed Seal of Heaven during the Chūnin Exams to help push him back into his desire for vengeance and to give him a taste of power. Although Kakashi Hatake sealed away the cursed seal, and taught him the Chidori in the hopes of deviating him from the path of revenge, Sasuke began to draw more power from the seal in the hopes of getting stronger. This caused his previous ambition to be renewed while causing him to disregard camaraderie once again.
According to Kakashi, Sasuke has both a superiority and an inferiority complex, as he is unwilling to acknowledge when someone is stronger than him, but obsesses when he believes that they are. For example, he was complacent with his rivalry with Naruto when he believed he was the stronger of the two, but upon noticing Naruto's fast growth, showcased in his victory over Sunagakure's jinchūriki, Gaara, who had previously beaten Sasuke, and his own quick defeat by Itachi on his return to Konoha, all culminated in his defection to Otogakure to seek power from Orochimaru.
In Part II, Sasuke became increasingly confident in his newfound abilities. Constantly, he remained composed and unconcerned with the situation at hand. Even when pressured by enemies like Orochimaru or Deidara, he showed no emotional build up; ironically, acting much like his older brother and only getting worked up when it involved Itachi. Despite getting stronger, Sasuke seemed unwilling to needlessly kill in his quest for revenge displaying that he still had some morals left. Sasuke, however, retained his habit of underestimating his opponents, shown in his overconfidence in his battles. Although, Sasuke is not above admitting his mistakes on such things, as shown after his battles with Deidara where he acknowledged that the former was stronger than he thought.
Sasuke has displayed an overbearing sense of pride in his clan's name and a great sense of loyalty to it and kept wearing his clan's crest on his back proudly while refusing to wear any other symbols such as a forehead protector. Despite claiming earlier that he did not care if he had to sacrifice his own body to Orochimaru as long as it served his quest for revenge, when Sasuke felt he had grown stronger than Orochimaru he thought that to give himself up to someone weaker than himself was insulting to the Uchiha. However, despite his disrespect of Orochimaru as a person, Sasuke does have great respect for his power, going so far as to reprimand Suigetsu when he felt the latter was underestimating Orochimaru's capabilities. He also views anyone outside of the clan wielding its dōjutsu as an insult, as the eye is representative of the Uchiha clan's powers. According to Tobi, Sasuke alone is shouldering the entire hatred of the Uchiha clan — an ideal which has been passed down for generations within the clan.
Village Info
Village of Birth: Land of Fire WSE Clan: N/A
Rank//Chakra Info
Ninja Rank: Jounin Specialty: Lightning | Fire | Genjutsu | Fuuinjutsu | Rope Arts Elements: Fire | Water | Lightning | Earth | Wind | Chloroform | Liquid Nitrogen | Mawscape | Draconium | Yin Release | Blaze Release Your ninjutsu: Ninjutsu | Genjutsu | Taijutsu | Kenjutsu | Foxes | Snakes | Kaito's Tai | Medjutsu | Fuuinjutsu | | Rope Arts | Warrior Monk's Way | Way of the Barriers | The Enchant of Untouchable | Infinite Sword Style | Eternal Mangekyo Sharingan | Sharingan Genjutsu
Background Info
History:
Uchiha (うちはサスケ, Uchiha Sasuke) is one of the last surviving members of Konohagakure's Uchiha clan. He became a shinobi so he could someday grow strong enough to exact revenge against his older brother, Itachi, who had slaughtered their entire clan. Initially a member of Konoha's Team 7, Sasuke defected from the village to obtain power from Orochimaru, and later also joined Akatsuki, becoming an international criminal in the process. He later proves instrumental in ending the Fourth Shinobi World War, redeeming himself and his family name. Since early childhood, Sasuke is hailed as a prodigy even amongst the Uchiha clan, being well-versed in their techniques and graduating top of his class in the Academy
Other
Sasuke is able to use Lightning techniques with a single hand seal, and Fire with faster hand seals. Sasuke has signed the Snake contract, and carries a tattoo on his right arm, as well as the Foxes, with a tattoo on his left arm. Sasuke owns a special breed of snakes, which he is able to summon. Sasuke carries on him, a myriad of seals. He carries a seal to weaken other techniques, a seal that allows him to transform into Lightning when struck, a seal that resists draining techniques of any sort, a seal that enhances his abilities, a seal that for defense and lastly, a seal that enhances his Fuuinjutsu abilities. Sasuke also carries on him, several pills and medical tools.
Fuuinjutsu Seals
(Fuuin: Bachi no Kindachi) - Sealing Technique: Damocles, The Curse of Kings
Type: Defensive/Supplementary
Rank: S
Range: Short - Long
Chakra: 40 (80 chakra for double usage)
Damage: N/A
Description: The user will have four seals on their body (must be stated in the biography) with the Kanji for “Curse” that can be passively activated (instant but still counts as a move) whenever the opponent uses a technique. The seal will will release an intangible barrier that expands outwards in all directions. The barrier instantly reaches long-range in every direction and serves to absorb chakra from the given technique in order to weaken it by a quarter . The amount of chakra absorbed is proportional to the power of the technique but one thing that remains the same is that the remaining technique will fall to three-quarters it's original power i.e. a 120 damage technique would fall to 90 damage (Forbidden Rank). The barrier is destroyed soon after coming into contact with the technique if it exceeds a traditional S-Rank in power but not before it leeches a quarter of it’s chakra in order to weaken it by the same degree. The user can instead activate two barriers rather than one to reduce the targeted technique to half it’s original power rather than a quarter. This will count as two of the user’s three moves per turn. This means this technique does not counter other jutsu in itself but rather aids the user in countering more powerful techniques by weakening them. Due to the barrier’s intangibility, it will can work on solid techniques as well as liquids, gases and energy-based techniques. It will also only shatter against non-physical techniques due to their ability to clash with the intangible barrier. The reason this seal needs to be passively activated (still counts as a move) is so the user can use a technique in the same-timeframe to counter the opponent's weakened jutsu. This technique can be used thrice per battle, be it three usages of the single version, three usages of the double version or any variation/combination of the two.
Note: Can only be used three times per battle
Note: No Fuuinjutsu techniques can be used in the user's same and next turn (when single version is used)
Note: No Fuuinjutsu techniques can be used in the user's same and next two turns (when double version is used)
(Fuuin: Kanbatsu Jakunen Metsubou) - Sealing Technique: Law of the Logia
Type: Supplementary/Defensive
Rank: A
Range: Short
Chakra cost: N/A (-30 on activation)
Damage points: N/A
Description: The user will have a seal on their body with the Kanji for a specific element and it will lay dormant until the user is physically struck, be it by an attack, weapon or an opponent. Whenever the user is physically interacted with (e.g. punched, stabbed, shot), their body will instantly exhibit all of the properties of the chosen element. This doesn't mean their body merely has the properties of the element but rather when interacted with the targeted part(s) of the body will passively dissipate into storm energy or harden into steel (effect depends on the chosen element). If for example the user is stabbed and they turn into storm energy, the bladed weapon would merely phase through their energy-composed body and leave them unaffected. On the other side of the scale, if the user's body hardens into steel then the attack will simply do them no harm. After the attack or strike has passed through them, their body will automatically revert itself to it's normal appearance. Since this technique usually only applies to specific parts of the body, any unconverted portions of the user's body can still be moved/controlled/used as normal. While in this form, the user can only use the element they transformed into, the element's it's composed of and any combination of the aforementioned element as well as any non-elemental abilities. This technique enables the user to defend against A-Ranks and below of neutral elements (B-Ranks and below for weaknesses, S-Ranks and below for strengths). If the user is struck with an attack that will neutralize their transformation, the two cancel one another out and the user reverts to their original form unharmed. If the user is struck with an attack that overpowers their transformation, the user's body reverts to it's original form and sustains the remaining damage (after the collision of techniques). The only exception to this rule is if the two chosen elements have no sort of interaction with one another (e.g. Fire and Lightning), in which case rank differences will not matter. Regardless of how the user is hit, this can be a full body or partial transformation (depends on the user’s choice). Should they be struck by a physical attack capable of cancelling out their transformation (e.g. a sword streaming nagashi), the sword will remain inside them on reversion and they’ll be impaled by the blade.
Notes:
-Can only be taught by Detective L.
-This seal can only activate twice per battle and lasts one turn
-This technique must be stated in user's biography
-Follows elemental strengths and weaknesses
-User must possess the given element and it cannot be a CE
-Happens passively but counts as one of the user's moves per turn
(Fuuin: Bachi no Fukyuu) - Sealing Technique: Bane of the Immortal
Type: Defensive/Supplementary
Rank: A
Range: Short
Chakra: 30 (-10 chakra per turn)
Damage: N/A
Description: The user will have a seal on their body with the Kanji for "Eternal". The seal lies dormant and is passively activated whenever the opponent tries to seal or drain the user's chakra and/or abilities. The seal will instantly release an intangible barrier that surrounds the user's body like an armour. Any abilities which act externally such as the canon techniques Multiple Infinite Embraces or Living Barrier will be unable to affect anything inside the barrier, namely the user's body. Seals which act internally will first have their chakra be absorbed by the barrier (happens instantly and so before they can come into effect) and once erected, the barrier will prevent any further insertion of chakra while active. The seal is self-sustaining and will involuntary leech chakra from the user's body. This is for the express purpose of maintaining this technique even when the user can't use or mold chakra. This is possible as the chakra still exists within the user as it is equivalent of their very life-force. This can counter S-Rank and below sealing techniques. This cannot be activated manually and will only ever activate under the aforementioned conditions. It lasts for four turns or until the ability attempting to seal or drain the user's chakra or abilities is no longer active, whichever is longer.
Note: Can only activate a maximum of thrice per battle
(Fuuin: Akuma to no dansu) - Sealing Technique: Dance With The Devil
Type: Supplementary
Rank: A
Range: Short
Chakra cost: 30
Damage points: N/A
Description: The user will have a seal placed on their body with the Kanji for a specific element. The seal can be passively activated in battle and it’s activation will restrict the user to a certain element (as well as the one’s it’s comprised of. In exchange for limiting the user to certain element(s), the user's techniques of the remaining elements will gain one rank and in the case of S-Ranks and above they will gain +20 damage. In the case of defensive and supplementary techniques, they will become capable of defending against techniques with 20 more damage points (only applies to S-Ranks and above). This counts as a passive boost rather than an active one due to the nature of the seal. To clearly illustrate the seal’s use in battle, if the user restricted themselves to Steel Release, they would still have access to Earth, Fire and any CE combinations of the aforementioned elements (elements that use solely earth, solely fire or Earth and Fire). Alternatively, the user can create the seal in the middle of a battle but this usage can only be used once. This usage is fast enough to be used in the same time-frame as the subsequent technique. Once activated, this technique lasts until canceled.
Notes:
-Can only be taught by Detective L
-Must be stated in user’s biography and can only be activated once per battle/event
-Alternative use can only be used once per battle
Type: Defensive
Rank: A
Range: Short
Chakra Cost: 30
Damage Points: N/A
Description: This technique is composed of a sealing formula that remains active until triggered, this sealing formula bears the Kanji letter of "ガ" or in literal meaning "guard" which is located on the user's upper arm. This sealing formula erects an invisible barrier that's made around the user at all times but does not actually cost the user a move until it activates, the barrier works by detecting the chakra of a fast incoming technique and deflects it, causing it to dissipate and leave the user unharmed, the barrier's deflection ability is only triggered by a fast moving technique, basically a technique that can't be tracked by normal eye sight and requires at least a Sharingan or similar means to track, the barrier that's around the user detects the speed once the technique collides with the chakra released from the barrier that's around the user and the sealing formula glows suddenly, causing the barrier that surrounds the user to repel the incoming technique within short range of the user.
Note: Can only be trigger twice per battle.
Note: Can guard against up to an S-rank technique.
Note: The user can use it twice counting as two moves per turn and using +30 chakra with each usage to guard against a forbidden ranked technique, this can only be used once.
Note: No Fūinjutsu techniques in the same turn.
Fuuinjutsu: Yomigaeri no Mikoyose) - Sealing Arts: Resurrection of Sorcery
Type: Supplementary
Rank: A
Range: Short
Chakra: 30 (-10 to the main two affinities of the user)
Damage:N/A (-10 to the main two affinities of the user)
Description: This seal must be either stated in the user's bio or placed on him before battle. This seal is linked to the users two strongest elemental abilities and only seeks to make them weaker in order to increase the power of the users Sealing Arts. When passively activated it will drain the user's two main elemental affinities of 10 points of chakra and damage automatically every time they're used, storing it within itself, and making the users techniques using those affinities weaker until its deactivated. It's true purpose will be triggered whenever the user utilizes the art of Fuuinjutsu, it will convert and release this stored power into any Fuuinjutsu technique whenever it is used, filling the technique with the energy it took from the user's elemental prowess. This results in every Fuuinjutsu technique the user uses gaining +1 Rank (if they’re A-Rank or below). On the other side, the main two elemental affinities of the user will automatically lose 10 damage and chakra each when they are used. Elements which are a combination of both of the weakened elements will also be weakened in the same way. This lasts until deactivated.
-Can only be used or activated once per battle
-Can't be used on bios without two elemental specialties
-Can’t be used on S-Rank and above Fuuin
-Can’t be used on Multiple Infinite Embraces
Medical Tools and Pills:
(Heishi Piru) Soldier Pills
Type: Supplementary
Description and Background:Soldier pills are a more combat aimed variation of the military ration pill. Upon ingesting the pill, your chakra supply doubles, but burns at a greatly accelerated rate due to the "pressure" involved. Upon ingesting the pill, any ninjutsu you use gains +15 damage and any taijutsu gains +10 for 4 turns. Upon expiry of the effects you must use an extra 10 chakra for every technique afterwards for 5 turns due to the fatigue setting in meaning you have to force your techniques more, and thereby adding to the toll it takes on your body. These pills are a basic medicine medical ninjas use in combat and are essentially black small round pills which are swallowed and absorbed through the mucosa in the stomach, made off of various ingredients and medicinal herbs as well as stimulants
Description of Side Effects:
-Upon using a second pill in a conflict the additional chakra cost after expiry rises to +30 until healed
-Upon taking a third pill, the medical ninja will suffer cardiac arrest upon expiry of the pill.
(Hyōrōgan) Military Ration Pills
Type: Healing
Description and Background:Military Rations Pills (兵糧丸, Hyōrōgan) are special pills that replenish one's chakra and nourish the body. It is made up of powerful stimulants and nutrients, said to allow the user to keep fighting for three days and three nights without rest. Replenishes 50 percent of the user's maximum chakra supply per pill taken, along with pumping stimulants into the body to alleviate tiredness. These pills are a basic medicine medical ninjas use or distribute in combat and are essentially dark brown small round pills which are swallowed and absorbed through the mucosa in the stomach.
Description of Side Effects:
-Taking two pills in a conflict results in hyper-stimulation of the cardiovascular system. The users heart rate and blood pressure increase to the point they become painful for 6 turns after taking the pill.
-Taking 3 pills in a conflict pushes the user's cardiovascular system to breaking point, resulting in heart failure after 4 turns.
(Ketsueki no Zōka Piru) Blood Replenishing Pill
Type: Healing
Description and Background: Contains high concentrations of amino acids, iron and mitosis inducing enzymes designed to turbo boost the production of erythrocytes from haematopoetic stem cells in the human body. This pill alleviates and cancels the symptoms of blood loss after one turn. These pills are a basic medicine medical ninjas use or administer in combat and are essentially dark red small round pills which are swallowed and absorbed through the mucosa in the stomach
Description of Side Effects:
-Taking 2 pills leads to increased blood pressure, and increased likelihood of blood clots forming, specially through trauma.
-Taking 3 pills over stresses the cardiovascular system and causes aneurysm after 4 turns.
Medical Tools
メス - scalpel, sterilized
ナイフ - knife
アルコール - a bottle of 96% ethanol for disinfection
水 - a bottle of sterilized water
スポイト - syringe, sterile, for one time use only
アドレナリン - adrenaline, to be injected intravasulary, induces faster heartbeat
包帯 - bandage, sterile, 8 meters in length
血液 - a set of everything you need to draw someones blood (Sterile syringe, vacuum system and a test tube.)
温度計 - mercury thermometer, for axillary or rectal use
ベッド - a mobile bed to carry patients
バグ - bug spray, effective against all bugs, lasts for 2 turns (used in cases when your patient is having a reaction to multiple bug stings, and there are still some bugs around it, so you spray-kill them. Kills bugs up to A rank if they've been created/summoned from a jutsu like the Aburame techniques)
テント - a small tent, just enough for two people to lie in
光 - a flashlight
ガスマスク - gas mask with a bottle of oxygen that lasts 5 turns (Not 100% effective against all types of poison/gas. The purpose is to protect the user from breathing in toxic substances, keeping the lungs safe. However, if the poison gets absorbed through the pores of the skin it will still affect you).
流体 - a set to start an intravenous fluid addition line, helpful with dehydration amongst many other conditions
モルタル - mortar and pestle, chemically clean
スプーン - spoon, sterile
パテ - putty knife, metal, sterile
研究所 - a small tent. Into the walls of that house, parts of Nexus' eyes DNA have been inserted, so now it mixes Time And Relative Dimensions In Space , creating an effect of being larger on the inside then it is on the outside. Inside is an advanced ninja laboratory with everything needed to create antidotes and medicines.
Summonings:
Hebi Kuchiyose: Sentaku-shu | Snake Summoning: Selective Species, Crotalinae: The Pitvipers
Type: Supplementary/Defensive
Rank: D-S
Range: N/A
Chakra Cost: 10-40 (Depends on rank of summons)
Damage Points: N/A
Description:
The Crotalinae are a selective species of snake summonings which were bred and assigned only to the greater of the snake contract signers. These species of Snake summonings specifically had evolved over time to have harder, more adaptable scales covering their body and an enhanced pit organ that naturally heightened their abilities to sense. This heightened sensing used through the pit organ seemingly was developed not only for predatory reasons but also for defensive measures against other predators. The sensing was exactly like the basics of any other snake, just taken to a higher level. Meaning they could sense minute vibrations up to a certain distance around them and even had an infrared optic map of the world before them. Typically, most snakes of the Crotalinae subfamily had natural infrared maps overlaid through their optic tectum, but with the Selective species being bred into existence it was heightened to the point of even being able to put this to use in the pitch black and in the darkest of times. The facial pit actually visualizes thermal radiation using the same optical principles as a pinhole camera, wherein the location of a source of thermal radiation/heat is determined by the location of the radiation on the membrane of the heat pit. The resolution on the infrared mapping through the heat pits has a very high resolution, which in turn allows the snakes to sense different levels of heat and cooler areas in extreme detail. Besides the sensing, their scales made for a greater form of defense, allowing them to survive harsher conditions and more damage than an average snake summoning. Not only were the scales on Crotalinae found to be more thicker and tougher than average, but they also held a passive ability to blend in with their environment by changing colors and becoming camouflaged. This coupled with their sensing made them very dangerous predators that were even able to escape other predator's perception if they didn't have some higher form of tracking or sensing.
Note: Must be posted within the bio or in the beginning of a fight.
Note: The Crotalinae Species can be summoned as generic snakes like the ones summoned in techniques such as: Summoning Technique: Giant Snakes, Summoning Technique: Three Headed Snakes, or Just the normal generic summoning technique, though instead of being normal snakes, they'd be of the Crotalinae subfamily. They won't take the place of those techniques, instead the user uses the generic summoning technique to summon Crotalinae, having to post this technique along with it but not costing an extra move.
Note: The sensing of minute vibrations and infrared mapping spans as far as an 100m radius, with larger snakes being able to sense the furthest due to their larger pit organs. Snakes under 40m in length can only sense up to 50m whole anything bigger can sense up to the maximum reach.
Note: The evolved scales allow the Crotalinae Species to take up to 20 more damage than average snake summonings of their rank. This is due to the thickness and tougher nature of the scaling covering the Crotalinae.
Psychological Assessment
Chapter 1
A brief retrospective overview;
The origins of Psychological Assessment:
1. Astrology:
-Refers to the evaluation of the planets, their position, and used to formulate personality characteristics and predict what's going to happen in their lives.
-Follows the self-fulfilling prophecy.
2. Physiognomy:
-Judging a person based on physical features (face/body) in relation to the similarity features of those of animals.
3. Humorology:
-Four bodily fluids/humors, personality related, no scientific verification and no historical relevance.
4. Phrenology:
-Reading people's heads, the manner in which the skull is shaped, also had an impact on personality and cognitive functioning.
-No research basis.
-Hills and dents indicated more or less of a specific characteristic.
5. Chirology (Palmistry):
-Palm creases changed in relation to individual personality.
-Not a lot of scientific proof behind it.
6. Graphology:
-Systematic study of handwriting, personality being expressed in writing.
-High face validity, has holistic predictions and limited validity.
-Some evidence in the scientific community.
Historical Overview
#Early Developments:
-Whatever exists, exists in small amounts and can be measured (something like Intelligence cannot be measured as a 0, for example).
-Italian renaissance; Huarte's first book. The first proposal of assessment as a discipline. People differ, different vocations - different talents - system to be developed.
-Behavior rating through observations (defined what is normal behavior, and what is abnormal behavior). Can differ depending on the context, and the norm is defined.
-Psychometrics; the statistical element of a specific instrument, by Wolf. Saw that there was a need for standardized procedures, to see what is normal, and what is abnormal, objectively ( look at the same stimuli, and have the same interpretation, despite individuals who observe, being different).
-Standardized conditions of assessment, experiment. Interpretation of things must be the same, like the memo of a test, a specific norm standard must be set.
The Early 20th Century:
-The early form of assessment had a very subjective form, later became more objective.
-Would then come to the same conclusion, thanks to standardized tests.
-Theories related to human behavior, statistical methods helping to analyze data and the application of Psychology as a discipline across industries.
-Psychology was featuring in other disciplines, like Education and Military Science (to assess teachers, and better candidates for the military for example).
-There was a need to assess mentally disturbed and disabled people. There was no clear distinction between the two.
-Introduction to the Binet-Simon Scale (which was heavily reliant on verbal ability). Migrants were tested with this test. They did not speak the language (or did so, very poorly) which caused them to have a lower than average intelligence level.
-For migrants, there was a lot of tension, in terms of getting paperwork, a job, etc. all influenced them to score low on the test.
-Some tests were created for groups, others for individuals.
-World War 1 needed group tests, as well as credibility for soldiers ( to see their mental states, used for police officers as well). Need to identify the best ones.
Measurement Challenges:
-Critical inquiry (personality and intelligence measures).
-Highly dependent on language and verbal use (things like IQ tests).
-There was no standardized test for specific assessments (things like Personality).
-World War 2, had issues and disagreements with the APA. They also criticized independent testing, as well as Psychotherapy.
-Multi-Culturism; refers to culture free tests (tests that are not tied to specific group or culture), place of test development and standardization.
-Cross-cultural test adaptation.
-Bias and fairness.
-Development of internally applicable tests (input).
-Simultaneous multilingual test development, multinational norms to be developed (applicable to all areas, and different countries; countries work together at the same time, for the same test).
-Standards for the professional practice of testing and assessment.
-Competency assessment of test users (people make use of tests that they are not registered, or qualified, for). Thus, they are tested to see whether they are qualified to use it.
-Ethical use, fit for purpose (use a test that is applicable for its purpose), used with integrity. Test review systems.
-Computerized testing; ethical and legal issues (like cheat, not being computer literate, nobody around to assist, technical issues, etc).
-Psychological assessment (expertise in Psychology and psychological theories, cognitive, aptitude and personality functioning).
Psychological Assessment; place in society (Namibia):
POSSIBLE QUESTION:
-Is there a place for Psychological Assessment in Namibia (Yes, or NO, discuss); 20 marks.
-There is a need to maintain equity and efficient management of personal development.
-There is a need to have to remain scientific and objective.
-Central part of the discipline, and credibility increasing.
-International, educational, legal and industry specific requirements.
-Contextual, standardized, relevant and expert.
-Same level of standards need to remain, in terms of standardizing tests.
-There is a need for Psychological Assessment in different areas of life, like Education and even in the Law.
-A difference can be seen between the subjective and objective ways of assessment.
-There is a need to develop an instrument that is a standardized measured; allowing everyone despite biases, to get the same or similar results.
-Objectivity vs traditional measures, more structured, organized, reliable and fair.
-There must be specific steps in order for it to be replicable, or easily replicated by others. Need to increase reliability for the instrument as well.
-Multi-Method Approach, make use of different types of methods.
*Triangulation; using multiple methods to come to the same conclusion.
Introduction to Assessment; Why and How we assess
Chapter 2
Introduction:
-Why do we assess a person, object or process?
-We may want to see if the person (or object) meets certain requirements.
-We may want to compare certain different things or situations, to help us make a decision.
-We may want to see whether a situation has changed over a given period.
What is Assessment?
-Assessment is defined as the process of determining the presence of, and/or the extent to which, an object, person, group or system possesses a particular property, attribute or characteristic.
-Assessment is the systematic collection of descriptive and judgemental information necessary to make effective decisions.
-Psychological Assessment; involves the classification of behaviors into categories measured against a normative standard.
Measurement:
-Difficult to assess whether a person or object has a certain property, or to specify exactly how much of the property they possess (like beauty or intelligence).
#Measurement; consists of rules for assigning symbols to objects in order to;
a) represent qualities of the attributes (scaling).
b) define whether the objects or phenomena fall into the same or different categories with respect to the attributes concerned (classification).
-Measurement involves applying clearly stated rules to determine how much of a certain property, characteristic, or attribute is present in a particular object, person, system or process.
-Attaching a numeric value to that phenomenon as an aid to assessing or interpreting it.
-Measurement is more accurate than just assessing.
Evaluation:
-Involves interpreting or attaching a judgemental value to an assessment.
-For example, seeing water bubbling, assume water is near boiling point and hot, no need to test it.
-Called Observation.
-Testing, on the other hand, is the use of an intervention of some kind to carry out the assessment.
-Not very accurate like measurement.
Properties of a good measure:
-Will have the following properties;
1. It will attach an observable phenomenon (eg: the height of the mercury) to the unobservable phenomena (eg: temperature).
2. There will be correspondence between the two phenomena (eg: the hotter the water, the higher the mercury).
3. The observable phenomena (eg: the height of the mercury) will be scale-able (have a numerical value eg: degrees Celsius).
4. There will be a relative consistency between the two phenomena, when the temperature is at a certain level, the mercury will always rise to the same scale level.
5. Because the rules are transparent, and consistently applied, different observers will be able to agree on the value assigned to the phenomenon.
The Advantages of Quantification:
-Six major advantages to quantification;
1. Objectivity:
-The extent to which any process and its results are agreed to by neutral or unbiased observers, and is thus independent of the personal or subjective judgement of those involved.
-Objectivity is enhanced when numerical values are attached to an object or phenomena, in terms of known rules.
2. Precision:
-Measurement allows finer, more precise distinctions to be made, leaving room for more subtle effects to be noted than is possible when personal judgements is made.
3. Analysis and Comparison:
-Quantification allows for the more sophisticated analysis of patterns and trends, using statistical techniques like t-tests, analysis of variance, etc.
4. Generalisability:
-Key aspect of any scientific enterprise is to find ways of generalizing from the specific to the general.
-Measurement allows us to quantify and classify objects within larger super-ordinate classes.
-Thus, we are able to specify what each has in common with other cases, and how they differ.
5. Communication:
-Easier to communicate and interpret information that is in symbolic or numeric form.
6. Economy:
-Easier to utilize tools/instruments to measure and state data than using words.
Why do we assess?
1. To obtain accurate information to describe an existing situation.
2. To gain an understanding of reasons for the occurrence of an existing situation.
3. To suggest ways of changing an existing situation.
4. To illustrate the impact of any intervention or change process.
5. To enable us to predict the future behavior or actions of the people involved.
-Also, assess performance of groups, organizations, pairs of people, etc.
Formative and Summative Assessment:
1. Formative Assessment:
-Is concerned with what happens during a process, and is designed to help the person managing that process to gain insight into what is taking place, and to modify it, as necessary.
-More concerned with the steering process.
-Eg: ask students how they feel about the course, to help lecturer adjust aspects.
2. Summative Assessment:
-Concerned with the outcome of a process, or the current status of a phenomenon, for example, the results of the end of a course, test, or exam.
How do we obtain data?
-Six major methods to do so.
1. Direct Observation:
-Means person doing the assessment watches or observes the behavior of the person in question, in a particular setting and draws conclusions based on this.
-Can be time-consuming and labour intensive, but useful when respondents are self-conscious, unable or unwilling to talk or when behavior is complex.
-Possible to observe animals (Branch of Psychology called Evolutionary or Comparative Psychology).
2. Historical Records:
-Because people are generally fairly consistent in what they do, the best single predictor of how they are likely to behave in the future, is how they have behaved in the past.
-This includes consulting existing documents like school, court or medical records, case histories or track records.
3. Referral Information:
-Most properly organized schools, clinics, hospitals and other agencies have some kind of standardized intake form, from which it is possible to pick up potential problems.
4. Interviews:
-To ask questions of the person and/or those involved, like parents, teachers, etc.
5. Written Answers:
-Participant may be required to produce written information.
-Range from unstructured questions, to questionnaires.
-May include a narrative statement, survey, scale, or even a test.
6. Intervention:
-Involves some form of direct observation by the observer, an attempt/effort to answer, "What if?" questions.
#Triangulation; simply means we should not rely only on one form of assessment, but use as many different approaches as are warranted.
-Info gathered across; multiple measures, domains, sources, settings and occasions.
-The assessment process is multidimensional in nature; it entails the gathering and synthesizing of information as a means of describing and understanding functioning. This can inform appropriate decision-making and interventions.
Levels of Measurement:
1. Nominal Data:
-Also called categorical (because it refers t the categories).
-Used to indicate membership of a class.
-Like males and females.
-The only property that is associated to the Nominal scale is equivalence, that is, that all objects with the same number, belong to the same category.
-The only permissable statistical manipulations that one can perform with Nominal data is to count the number of cases.
2. Ordinal Data:
-Ordinal scales place objects in rank order, so that they can be graded harder, bigger, stronger than the other objects.
-Does not say how much each property has.
-The permissable statistics that can be used include percentiles, interquartile range, median and various order based statistical tests.
3. Interval Data:
-With Interval data, the size of the difference (or interval) between scores is regarded as equal.
-There is no absolute zero.
-The permissable statistic that can be used with Interval data are, the arithmetic mean (average) and statistics based on variance, like t-tests, Pearson Correlation and Analyses of Variance.
4. Ratio Data:
-Characterized by equal intervals and an absolute zero.
-Thus "twice" and "half" are meaningful.
-The permissable statistical techniques are the same as with Interval data, but include ratios as well.
-Points about the levels of measurement;
a) Very little difference between ratio and interval data.
b) In almost all cases, Psychological data are, at best, Interval Data.
c) We can easily move from a higher form of data like Interval, to a lower form like Ordinal or Nominal.
How do we know if our measure is a good one?
-There are 3 basic properties;
1. Is my measure relatively consistent?
-If it measures in a constant fashion, we get similar results under different conditions.
-This is known as reliability.
2. Does my measuring device measure what it claims to measure?
-Does the instrument measure what it is intended to.
-Known as validity.
3. Is my measure fair? Does it treat what is being measured, fairly?
-Whether the technique is equally valid for different groups of people (bias, racism, discrimination).
Problems associated with Quantification in Social Sciences:
-Schools of thought argue psychological phenomena are not "real" but rather, constructed by the people involved.
-Two schools of thought;
1. Empiricist (Quantitative Approach)
2. Constructivist (Qualitative Approach)
-The empiricist believes that the world is real, and exists outside the experiences of the observer, and therefore, can be measured in reasonably accurate ways.
-The constructivist argues that everything is in the mind and is created by the observer, in terms of categories and relationships that have been learned.
-In the middle, critical realists argue that there is a real world out there, but that this is shaped and constructed, by our life experiences, value systems and the cognitive schemata and categories that we bring to bear on the issues.
-While there are numerous ways in which individuals and systems can be assessed, they all have one thing in common - the process of assessment begins with the systematic observation of the phenomenon of interest.
-Observation is important because it is the first step in assessment, and also in the scientific process of generating knowledge.
Casual Observation:
-Just casually looking at the phenomena.
-A random, non-specific way of observing or looking at phenomena.
Systematic Observation:
-"Looking for" things.
-Focusing on specific situations, and trying to observe them from different perspectives.
-Try to establish patterns of behavior and relationship between phenomena.
-The fundamental difference between "looking at" and "looking for" can be summed up in 2 words, "So what?"
-However, Hermeneutic or Grounded Theory research is essentially the first stage of the scientific process, in that, the observers "look at" what is happening in order to generate a hypotheses that needs to be looked at more closely in a "looking for" process.
-Patterns and explanations.
The ABC's of Observation:
1. Antecedents:
-Things that comes before.
-To understand how any systems work, and why it works as it does, we need to find out what led to the current situation.
-Look at person's track record, work history, disciplinary hearings, etc.
2. Behaviors:
-When we observe something, we need to focus on what is actually taking place at the time of the observation.
-Can be casual, or systematic, but must be clear about what we are looking at, and what constitutes a particular action.
-Important to draw up a checklist of behaviors so the seemingly similar behaviors are clearly identified to ensure that there is no confusion or overlap during the observation period.
3. Consequences:
-Things that follow from the behaviors.
-We need to track behavior for long enough to determine what happens next.
Ways of Categorizing the Observation Process:
Context:
-Refers to the setting in which the observations takes place;
1. Naturalistic Situation;
-Observers have little to no control over the situation.
2. Simulations;
-Things like team-building exercises or an assessment center, where carefully designed assessment tasks are introduced.
-Usually aimed to be close to real life situations.
-Include role-plays, driving simulators, simulating accidents, etc.
3. Artificial Situations;
-Place to be tested.
-May or may not be timed.
-No attempt to resemble real life.
Observer Involvement:
1. Present and Involved:
-Observer interacts directly.
2. Present but not involved:
-Observer sits in the room and takes notes, or gives tasks, as sees how it is done.
3. Absent:
-Person is observed through one way mirror, or through a video.
Intervention or Manipulation:
1. No Intervention:
-The observer simply watches what is happening and makes no attempt to influence the situation.
2. Minimal Intervention:
-The observer may influence the situation to a small degree, like introducing a problem into the observation setting, and seeing how the person will solve it.
3. Moderate Intervention:
-The observer or helper may begin to introduce more complex tasks, and see how these are managed.
4. Maximal Intervention:
-Testing is nothing more than the observation of a clearly defined sample of behavior in a tightly controlled situation, like a lab experiment or psychological testing.
-Various other combinations exist;
1. Naturalistic Observation without intervention:
-Simply watching the behavior of people or animals, without interacting.
2. Naturalistic observation with intervention:
-If Psychologist is looking for specific behavior patterns or reactions to particular situations, they may need to intervene to create particular situation that needs to be observed.
3. Observation in an artificial or simulated environment:
-Make sure artificial situation is as natural as possible.
Use of Tools or Aids:
-Some observations may require specialized tools, for example a brain scan, psychological tests or computerized tests of cognitive functioning.
-In some cases, some kind of electronic data logger can be used to record the activities taking place, and their duration.
Observation Schedules:
-One of the crucial aspects is to draw up an observation schedule, or sampling frame which specifies the aims of the observation, the frequency, duration and sequence of the observed behavior.
-A coding system can also be drawn up.
Assessment as a form of research:
-All assessments involve;
1. Formulating a question
2. Designing the means to address the question.
3. Interpreting the results.
4. Making recommendations.
5. Reporting the results.
a) Formulating a question;
-Questions that are pertinent and relevant to the case, should be formulated.
b) Addressing the question - gathering data or information;
-Involves gathering background information and assessing the level of present functioning.
-Should investigate previous behaviors as reported in different documents and records.
c) Diagnosing or interpreting the results;
-From the information gathered, the assessment should attempt to establish what is causing the individual or system to behave in this (unacceptable) way.
d) Making recommendations;
-The assessor should use the gathered information and his professional knowledge to recommend what can be done to bring about change.
e) Reporting the results;
-The assessor should present the assessment results in a written report, or at a case conference.
-Assessment is defined as the process of determining the presence of, and/or the extent to which, an object, person, group or system possesses a particular property, attribute or characteristic.
-Assessment is the systematic collection of descriptive and judgemental information necessary to make effective decisions.
2. Discuss the advantages of Quantification (12)
1. Objectivity:
-The extent to which any process and its results are agreed to by neutral or unbiased observers, and is thus independent of the personal or subjective judgement of those involved.
-Objectivity is enhanced when numerical values are attached to an object or phenomena, in terms of known rules.
2. Precision:
-Measurement allows finer, more precise distinctions to be made, leaving room for more subtle effects to be noted than is possible when personal judgements is made.
3. Analysis and Comparison:
-Quantification allows for the more sophisticated analysis of patterns and trends, using statistical techniques like t-tests, analysis of variance, etc.
4. Generalisability:
-Key aspect of any scientific enterprise is to find ways of generalizing from the specific to the general.
-Measurement allows us to quantify and classify objects within larger super-ordinate classes.
-Thus, we are able to specify what each has in common with other cases, and how they differ.
5. Communication:
-Easier to communicate and interpret information that is in symbolic or numeric form.
6. Economy:
-Easier to utilize tools/instruments to measure and state data than using words.
3. List some of the reasons (5) why we assess (10)
1. To obtain accurate information to describe an existing situation.
2. To gain an understanding of reasons for the occurrence of an existing situation.
3. To suggest ways of changing an existing situation.
4. To illustrate the impact of any intervention or change process.
5. To enable us to predict the future behavior or actions of the people involved.
4. List the different categories of Observation (?)
Context:
-Refers to the setting in which the observations takes place;
1. Naturalistic Situation;
-Observers have little to no control over the situation.
2. Simulations;
-Things like team-building exercises or an assessment center, where carefully designed assessment tasks are introduced.
-Usually aimed to be close to real life situations.
-Include role-plays, driving simulators, simulating accidents, etc.
3. Artificial Situations;
-Place to be tested.
-May or may not be timed.
-No attempt to resemble real life.
5. Does Psychological Assessment have a place in Namibian society and in the profession of Psychology? (20)
-There is a need to maintain equity and efficient management of personal development.
-There is a need to have to remain scientific and objective.
-Central part of the discipline, and credibility increasing.
-International, educational, legal and industry specific requirements.
-Contextual, standardized, relevant and expert.
-Same level of standards need to remain, in terms of standardizing tests.
-There is a need for Psychological Assessment in different areas of life, like Education and even in the Law.
-A difference can be seen between the subjective and objective ways of assessment.
-There is a need to develop an instrument that is a standardized measured; allowing everyone despite biases, to get the same or similar results.
-Objectivity vs traditional measures, more structured, organized, reliable and fair.
-There must be specific steps in order for it to be replicable, or easily replicated by others. Need to increase reliability for the instrument as well.
-Multi-Method Approach, make use of different types of methods.
*Triangulation; using multiple methods to come to the same conclusion.
6. Discuss different methods to obtain data in Psychological assessment (12)
1. Direct Observation:
-Means person doing the assessment watches or observes the behavior of the person in question, in a particular setting and draws conclusions based on this.
-Can be time-consuming and labour intensive, but useful when respondents are self-conscious, unable or unwilling to talk or when behavior is complex.
-Possible to observe animals (Branch of Psychology called Evolutionary or Comparative Psychology).
2. Historical Records:
-Because people are generally fairly consistent in what they do, the best single predictor of how they are likely to behave in the future, is how they have behaved in the past.
-This includes consulting existing documents like school, court or medical records, case histories or track records.
3. Referral Information:
-Most properly organized schools, clinics, hospitals and other agencies have some kind of standardized intake form, from which it is possible to pick up potential problems.
4. Interviews:
-To ask questions of the person and/or those involved, like parents, teachers, etc.
5. Written Answers:
-Participant may be required to produce written information.
-Range from unstructured questions, to questionnaires.
-May include a narrative statement, survey, scale, or even a test.
6. Intervention:
-Involves some form of direct observation by the observer, an attempt/effort to answer, "What if?" questions.
7. Discuss the four properties of a good psychological measure (8)
-Will have the following properties;
1. It will attach an observable phenomenon (eg: the height of the mercury) to the unobservable phenomena (eg: temperature).
2. There will be correspondence between the two phenomena (eg: the hotter the water, the higher the mercury).
3. The observable phenomena (eg: the height of the mercury) will be scale-able (have a numerical value eg: degrees Celsius).
4. There will be a relative consistency between the two phenomena, when the temperature is at a certain level, the mercury will always rise to the same scale level.
5. Because the rules are transparent, and consistently applied, different observers will be able to agree on the value assigned to the phenomenon.
-Health professions are based on a relationship of trust with patients.
-The term "profession" means a "dedication, a promise of commitment that is publicly made."
-To be a health professional requires lifelong commitment to good professional and ethical practices, and unreserved dedication to the good of fellow human beings, and society.
-The practice of health professions is a moral enterprise.
*An ethical code outlines the kinds of behaviors, that are consistent with professional standards and also shows which behaviors violate standards.
-It has 2 purposes;
1) Regulates inappropriate behavior.
2) To promote optimal behavior.
-A good professional code will assist Psychologists to stay out of trouble and also improve their professionalism, and good practice.
-Difficult to design appropriate ethical code for Psychology, because it is both an applied and scientific discipline.
Psychology comprises of many different fields of professional activity;
a) Education
b) Industrial
c) Clinical
d) Sport
e) Forensic
f) Neuro
g) Occupational
h) Academic/Research
Core Ethical Values & Standards for Good Practice:
1. Respect for persons:
-Respect patients or people, and acknowledge their intrinsic equal worth, dignity and sense of value.
2. Best interest or well being; (Non-Malificence);
-Do not harm or act against the best interest of patients, even when they conflict with the health professional's own interest.
3. Best interest or well-being; (Beneficence);
-Act in the best interests of the patients, even where there are conflicts with the health professional's own interest.
4. Human Rights:
-Recognize that some interests of individuals may be so important, that they acquire that status of human rights, in the form of either claims or freedom to be respected by all.
5. Autonomy:
-Honor patients' right to self-determination or to make their own informed choices, living their lives by their own beliefs, values and preferences.
6. Integrity:
-Incorporate core ethical values and standards as the foundation for good and upright character and responsible practices.
7. Truthfulness:
-Is professional relationships with patients, regard the truth and truthfulness as the basis of trust.
8. Confidentiality:
-In professional relationships with patients, treat personal and private information as confidential, unless overriding reasons confer a moral right to disclose.
9. Compassion:
-Be sensitive to, and empathize with, individual and social needs for comfort and support, and seek and create opportunities to translate emotions, such as feelings of sympathy or empathy, into action.
10. Tolerance:
-Respect the right of people to have different ethical beliefs, as they may arise from deeply held personal, religious, or cultural convictions.
11. Justice:
-Treat all individuals and groups in an impartial, fair and just manner.
12. Professional competence and self-improvement:
-Continually endeavor to attain the highest level of knowledge and skill, required within the health professionals' area of practice.
13. Society:
-Consistent with his/her professional abilities and standing in society, a health professional should strive to the betterment of society.
14. Privacy, and the protection thereof
Ethical Reasoning:
-How does one proceed from these guidelines, logically?
-How to apply it to a specific case?
-Ethical reasoning is needed.
-Practical reasoning proceeds, in 4 steps;
1. The Problem:
-Formulate the problem; is there a better way of understanding it?
2. Information:
-Gather all the relevant data (clinical, personal, social, etc)
3. Opinions:
-Consider all the reasonable options, choices or actions under the circumstances.
4. Moral Assessment:
-Weigh the ethical content of each option by asking the following;
*What are the consequences of each option?
*What are the most important values, duties and rights of the client, and their family/social group, and which weights the heaviest?
*What are the weaknesses of my view?
*How would YOU want to be treated? [The Golden Rule]
General Ethical Duties; what it means to have a duty;
-Ethical guidelines express duties.
-A duty is an obligation to do, or to refrain from something.
-If we have a duty to another person, it means we are bound to that person in some respect, and for some reason. We owe that person something.
-In addition, he/she may hold a corresponding right or claim against us.
*Asking someone to stand in for you.
-What do you owe the person?
-What do they owe you?
-Duties may be ethical, legal or both. Duties operate in the personal, social, professional or political spheres of our lives.
-At the same time health professionals are human beings and fulfill institutional roles.
-There are different types of duties;
1) Natural duties (as human beings);
-Refrain from doing bad.
-To be fair, or just.
-Simply because we are all humans.
2) Moral obligations (as professionals);
-Duties acquired due to being qualified and licensed as professionals (in contractual relationships with patients).
-Professional duty to provide medical care, etc.
3. Duties tied to specific institution;
-Like how a nurse has duties at a hospital.
-Duties described in work contract, job description, conventional expectations and similar guidelines.
*No duty is absolute, or holds without exception irrespective of time, place, or circumstance.
-Still, duties need to be taken seriously, and should only be overwritten with a more serious duty, in concrete circumstances.
-This entails weighing or balancing duties against one another, in a process of ethical reasoning.
*No list of duties is ever complete.
*If duties are not honored, without justification, can lead to sanctions imposed on professionals by the HPCNA.
*Duties can't really be classified into groups, cause it can belong to different parties at the same time.
-Psychologists are always busy with legal-ethical decision-making.
-These decisions;
a) Influence the welfare of people.
b) Have an uncertain outcome.
c) Influence the perception that people in general have, of Psychologists.
-One would expect that psychologists make decisions based on deliberate, cognitive, rational and non-emotive basis.
-Unfortunately, we make decisions rather automatically, intuitive, in a reactive manner with few facts.
-Effective, but can lead to mistakes.
Psychologists will be more careful in decision-making if;
-They know they will be held accountable.
-Know the decision might reflect negatively on them.
Example of legal ethical decisions that Psychologists makes;
1. Having the choice between going to a psych workshop, or to a company outing with friends.
2. Advise whether prisoner should go to the funeral of his only child.
3. A client tells the Psychologist that she committed murder.
4. A client tells the Psychologist that he is going to commit suicide.
Can a Psychologists make an objective decision?
-Psychologists are never detached fro the decision-making process.
-Active participants who not only get influenced, but are influenced by the process.
-Their own subjective values, dispositions, emotions and therefore tensions will influence their perceptions, definitions and answers to problem.
-The social context also influence decision-making;
a) Expectations of clients
b) Expectations of the systems the client belongs to (family)
c) System to which the psychologist belongs (organization where they work)
-Systems are constantly changing.
-Information given to the Psychologist, will always be incomplete.
Reasons for making WRONG ethical decisions;
1. Rationalize behavior that is wrong.
2. Lack of a thorough conceptual understanding of the norms that govern professional practice - find it difficult to reconcile two rival systems (Psychology and Law).
3. Often incompetent.
4. Because of own dispositions and emotions.
Emotions:
-Cover up mistakes when fearing consequences.
-Feel sorry for clients - then do something unethical.
-Personality flaws.
-Take revenge of colleagues.
-Take advantage of their position of trust.
*An example;
-The Peinecke Case;
-Counselled someone who disclosed that his partner killed someone.
-Psychologists gets subpoena to appear in court regarding this.
-Psychologists gets legal advice to disclose.
-Client threatens Psychologist.
-Psychologist burns all notes.
*Reality; psychologist will take decisions intuitively.
-Avoid the pitfalls by practicing in a professionally responsible legal-ethical way.
